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One of the most common ways of forming a question in Chinese is to add 嗎 at the end of a statement. Hence 你好! (Hi!) becomes 你好嗎? (How are you?)
This is to be used to redirect the question originally addressed to you. Its meaning is equivalent to "and you?" "what about you?" or "how about you?"
All three are adverbs, which should be placed before what they modify in Chinese. E.g., 很好, 也好, 都好.
Sometimes 很 is not really employed to mean "very" if it is modifying a monosyllabic adjective such as 好. It is simply because to say 我好 is a bit abrupt and hence awkward with only a monosyllabic adjective as the predicate of the sentence. Therefore people usually add 很 before 好 to make the sentence sound natural: 我很好 in this case does not necessarily mean "I am very well", it may simply convey the meaning of "I am fine".
The order of these words: If all three adverbs occur in the same sentence, their order is 也 -- 都 -- 很:
我很好.
我也很好.
我們也都很好.
N.B. 都 (both/all) is only used to refer to the items to the left of it. Hence it is wrong to say 都他們很好 ("all of them are fine"). One should say 他們都很好.
都不 indicates a complete negation whereas 不都 shows a partial negation:
As an auxiliary word, 的 is used to indicate possession. It comes between the subject and the noun it modifies: 我的書, 我媽媽的車 etc.
In the case of kinship or as a reference to people, however, the possessive marker 的 can be omitted. Otherwise it cannot.
e.g. 你弟弟 = 你的弟弟, 我爸爸 = 我的爸爸
Unlike English, Chinese sentences can sometimes go without a verb. In the sentence 我很好, the adjectival phrase 很好 serves as the predicate for the sentence. No verb "to be" is needed as in English (I am very well). This is generally true of a sentence that has an adjective as its predicate, even in negative sentences.
Notice that in other types of sentences, however, verb 是 should still be retained:
Study the following two dialogues:
To respond positively to a yes/no question, we often repeat the verb -- in the above case 是 and 忙 respectively -- as an equivalent to the English "yes" before making the statement itself. Note therefore that the response is not always 是.
Unlike English which has to move such interrogative words as "what", "when", "who" etc to the beginning of the sentence to form a question, Chinese leaves the word order unchanged when forming questions using such interrogative words as 誰, 哪, 什麼, etc:
As is obvious, one simply replaces the relevant words, which are what one wants to ask about, with the interrogative words to form questions. No change of word order takes place.
There are several ways of asking a person's name, depending on who that person is.
This is a very polite way of asking someone's name, literally "What is your honourable surname?". It is usually used to address one's elders or superiors, or someone of one's own age but to whom one wants to be polite. Notice, however, that the expression 貴姓 cannot be used when asking about a third person's name, or when referring to oneself.
This is a plain form of asking a person's name. It is usually used to address people of one's own age or younger, or one's inferiors. If one wants to be a bit polite, 請問 can be added to the question:
Unlike 貴姓, which is only used in the second person, 叫什麼 can be employed for all persons:
她叫什麼﹖我們叫什麼﹖我哥哥叫什麼﹖etc.
When asked 你姓什麼﹖you are supposed to give your last name first, and then as an option you can add your full name afterwards. But when asked 你叫什麼﹖you can give either your given name or your full name.
Both words mean "to study" or "to learn". Whereas 學習 can be used both transitively and intransitively, 學 is normally reserved for transitive use.
In the second sentence, the word 習 cannot be omitted.
在 (to be at/in...) functions as a verb.
To express the location or existence of something or somebody, use the following pattern:
S + 在 + place/location word or phrase
e.g. A: 你的地圖在哪兒﹖
B: 我的地圖在那兒。
A: 你爸爸媽媽在哪兒﹖
B: 他們在中國。
If the location or place is known or obvious, it can be omitted:
Nouns / personal pronouns + 這兒/那兒 as place words.
e.g. A: 地圖在哪兒﹖
B: 在我這兒。(or 在我那兒)
A: 你的車在哪兒﹖
B: 我的車在學生宿舍那兒。
The choice of 這兒 and 那兒 depends on the distance between the object and the speaker. If it is close to the speaker, use 這兒; if not, use 那兒.
The word order for Chinese place words
Unlike English, Chinese place words start with the larger ones and proceed to the smaller ones. Hence the sentence "She lives in room 423, 4th floor at the student dorm at the college" will be 她住學院學生宿舍四層四二三號。 Notice the exactly reverse order here, which is applicable to the address used when writing letters as well.
To live (stay) at a place
Most often one uses 住 to indicate that one lives or stays at a certain place. There are several patterns for the use of 住. For example, to say "I live here", one can have the following:
S + 住 + place word (我住這兒)
S + 住在 + place word (我住在這兒)
S + 在 + place word + 住 (我在這兒住)
All three sentences have the same meaning.
Reading numbers for phone, room, building, ID, etc
Unlike English, these sorts of Chinese numbers are read out digit by digit:
English: # 1452 (number fourteen fifty-two)
Chinese: # 1452 (一四五二號)
When using 還 to indicate "return", use the following pattern:
S + 還 + (sb.) + sth.
e.g. 我還他畫報
你還丁云的車。(Notice here sb. is omitted.)
This pattern is only used for simple objects, i.e. the object to be returned is not a complex one such as 她媽媽的日本車, etc. Notice in the second example above, sb. is omitted because it would be awkward to say 你還丁云丁云的車, although grammatically it is correct. We will later learn the ways to express something more complicated.
In this phrase, 用 is a verb which can be used both transitively and intransitively (i.e. it can be used either with or without an object). 一下兒 is an adverbial of time indicating "a short while, a little while". If an object is to be used for 用 in the above phrase, it should be placed after 一下兒:
Time words in Chinese are normally placed in one of two positions in a sentence: before or after the subject.
常 in the sense of "often" can often be reduplicated as 常常 without a change of meaning. Thus, 他常喝茶 = 他常常喝茶, 我們常去看書 = 我們常常去看書.
In making negative sentences, however, 常 is normally not reduplicated. Hence 他不常喝茶, 我們不常去看書.
An alternative way of forming a question is to juxtapose the affirmative and negative forms of the predicative verb or adjective:
If the verb or adjective is composed of a single word, then repeat the single word; if two or more words, then repeat them all:
If the predicative verb takes an object, it is usually only the verb that gets repeated, not the noun following it:
Sometimes if the object of the verb is not long, one can use the form of "V + object + 不 + V ?" as well, although this is not as common:
As in questions with interrogative words (誰, 什麼, etc), affirmative-negative questions do not take 嗎 at the end.
If an adverb such as 常, 都, 也 or 很 comes before the predicative verb or adjective, do not use the affirmative-negative form but use 嗎 instead:
Notice, however, that this rule applies only when those adverbs come before the predicative verbs or adjectives. Compare:
The second instance is acceptable because 很 comes after the predicative verb 是.
If there is more than one verb in a sentence, usually only the first verb gets the affirmative-negative form in the question:
你去商店買紙嗎﹖becomes 你去不去商店買紙﹖
他們歡迎我來嗎﹖ becomes 他們歡迎不歡迎我來﹖
In Chinese, 和 as a conjunction is normally used to connect two words or phrases, never two clauses or sentences:
中國和美國
我的爸爸和媽媽
她學習漢語和英語。
你認識我爸爸和弟弟嗎﹖
but not 我弟弟是學生﹐和我哥哥也是學生。
nor 你學習法語﹐和我也學習法語。
The adverb 都 is placed between the subject and the predicative verb or adjective. It governs only the elements before it:
我們都去中國。 (All of us go to China: 都 modifies 我們.)
but not 都我們去中國。
This is also wrong:
我都學漢語和法語。
because 都 modifies 我 and not 漢語和法語. If "both Chinese and French" is intended in the above sentence, the objects 漢語和法語 should be placed before 都:
我漢語和法語都學。
or 漢語和法語都我學。
The verb 有 in Chinese can mean both possession and existence, like the English "to have" and "there is" or "there are":
N.B.:
To negate 有, one uses 沒 instead of 不:
Informally in a negative sentence, 有 can sometimes be omitted:
The affirmative-negative question form is "... 有沒有 ... ?"
她有沒有妹妹﹖
呢﹐你們的宿舍有沒有人﹖
Sometimes, if the object of 有 is not long, one can use the form "... 有 + object + 沒有 ?" as well, although this form is not as common as the previous one.
她有妹妹沒有﹖
這宿舍有人沒有﹖
The object of 在 is often a place-word and the object of 給 is often the beneficiary of the action expressed by the predicative verb. In Chinese, a prepositional construction comes before the verb it modifies:
To form a negative sentence, 不 is placed before the prepositional construction:
Adverbs such as 常, 都, 也 are also placed before the prepositional construction:
The word 想 in Chinese carries various meanings:
想 + noun/noun-phrase = to miss somebody/something:
想 + verb/verb-phrase = to want to do something:
想 + clause = to think/suppose something:
N.B. to negate a sentence with 想 in this capacity, put the negative adverb in the subordinate clause, not in the main clause as in English:
N.B. 想 as a verb can use the affirmative-negative question form only in senses 1 and 2 above, not in 3.
告訴 means "to tell". In English, the verb "tell" can mean to tell somebody something, or to tell somebody to do something. The Chinese verb 告訴 can only be applied to the first of these patterns.
Notice the element following the indirect object (i.e. 我, 媽媽) of 告訴 in the first and second sentences is either a noun, a noun-phrase or a clause, but never a verb-phrase. The last sentence is wrong because it uses the pattern "to tell somebody to do something" and hence uses a verb-phrase for its direct object. In this case, we should use 叫 or 請 in place of 告訴 to make a correct sentence:
For Arabic numerals 0 to 10, the Chinese equivalents are:
○ (or 零), 一, 二, 三, 四, 五, 六, 七, 八, 九, 十
Further on, they are:
十一 = 11, 十二 = 12, 十九 = 19
二十 = 20, 二十一 = 21, 二十八 = 28
三十 = 30, 四十 = 40, 九十 = 90, 九十九 = 99
一百 = 100
一百零一 = 101, 一百十 = 110, 一百十一 = 111
三百二十七 = 327, 九百零九 = 909
一千 = 1000
一千零一 = 1001, 五千零四十 = 5040, 八千七百二十五 = 8725
一萬 = 10,000
四萬零八百零一 = 40,801
一億 = 100,000,000
N.B.:
A zero is pronounced or written when sandwiched by two digits: 101 is 一百零一, and 3020 is 三千零二十. Notice the last zero in 3020 is not pronounced because it is not between two other digits.
If there are two or more zeroes in succession between two non-zero digits, as in 1001, only one is pronounced: 一千零一. However, if the two or more zeroes are separate and also sandwiched, as in 40,801, each is read as normal: 四萬零八百零一.
Measure words
In Chinese, when a noun is modified by numerals, demonstrative pronouns such as 這 or 那, or interrogative pronouns such as 哪 or 幾, a specific measure word should be placed between the noun and its modifier(s):
三本書, 十五個學生, 那個老師, 哪個圖書館, 幾本詞典
Both of these can be used to mean "how many" or "how much". Whereas 幾 should be used with a measure word, 多少 can be used either with or without a measure word for the noun it modifies.
The measure word 本 is a must for the first sentence, but only optional in the second.
Also, when 幾 is used, the expected answer is usually under 10, whereas 多少 can be used whether one expects a large or small answer.
你們大學有多少學生﹖
你家有幾個人﹖
Chinese verbs that take direct and indirect objects
As in English, some verbs in Chinese can take two objects: direct object (usually a thing) and indirect object (usually a person).
王老師教我們語法。
In this sentence, 教 is a verb that takes 我們 as the indirect object and 法語 as the direct object. Generally the indirect goes before the direct object. Some other verbs that work the same way include 還, 告訴 and 問.
Not all Chinese verbs can take two objects: it would be wrong to say 他買我一本書 (He bought me a book), or 她寫我一封信 (She wrote me a letter). The correct way of saying these would be to use 給, as in 他給我買一本書 and 她給我寫一封信.
Adjectives as modifiers
When an adjective modifies a noun, it is placed directly before the noun as in English:
However, when the adjective modifier is made up of two or more syllables, the particle 的 is usually inserted between the modifier and the noun it modifies:
也 is used to mean "the same" as the previous statement. Hence the relationship between the statement introduced by 也 and the previous one is a parallel relationship. 還, on the other hand, introduces an additional element to the previous statement.
Under certain circumstances, 也 and 還 are interchangeable, but with different emphasis:
Although both sentences can be roughly translated as "Professor Wang teaches us Chinese characters and grammar; he also teaches us conversation", their emphasis is different: the first sentence stresses the fact that Wang teaches conversation in addition to the other subjects he teaches, whereas the second simply enumerates the three subjects he teaches without prioritization.
的 construction
A modifier (normally either a noun, a pronoun, a verb or an adjective) with the word 的 can function as a noun or noun-phrase in a sentence, and can stand by itself if the context is clear:
Usage of 從
從 + place word + 去 = to go from; 從 + place word + 來 = to come from.
Noun/Pronoun + 這兒 / 那兒 = over here/there at ...'s place
When a noun or pronoun is added to 這兒 or 那兒, they function as a place word or expression. Since one cannot say 我去她 (I went to her), one can say instead 我去她那兒 (I went to her place), because 她那兒 is now regarded as a place expression. Similarly one cannot say 你的裙子在我 (Your skirt is with me), but one can say 你的裙子在我這兒 (Your skirt is with me). More examples:
As is obvious, if the place or the person is away from the speaker, use 那兒; if the place is near the speaker or refers to the speaker himself or herself, use 這兒.
This pattern is often used for emphatic purposes. An adjective is used between 太 and 了:
The expression 太好了﹗, however, has a positive meaning, expressing satisfaction or admiration.
These both mean "two", and are used as follows.
When "2" is followed by a measure word, use 兩:
兩個人, 兩本書, 增加了兩倍, 去了兩次
二 should be used in a number greater than 10, even if it is followed by a measure word:
二十二, 一百零二次, 十二個人, 五千八百六十二元
There are some more restrictions, though:
Only 二 can be used before the character 十; before the character 百, 二 is usually employed but 兩 may also be used:
二十, 二百二十五, 二百五十元 or 兩百五十元
For numbers like 千, 萬 or 億, 兩 is used more often than 二:
兩千元 (also 二千元), 兩萬三千八, 兩億人口
If the number is greater than 百, 千, 萬, i.e. if there are more digits before 百, 千 or 萬, then put 二 instead of 兩 in front:
四億二千萬, 三萬二千人, 五千二百元
The following are ways of telling the time in Chinese:
A: 現在幾點﹖
B: 現在...
2:00 |
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10:30 |
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3:15 |
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12:45 |
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1:55 |
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5:20 |
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6:05 |
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7:35 |
Some notes:
When zero is flanked by two digits, it is normally read as 零, as in 三點零八分 (3:08) or 十二點零三分 (12:03).
When the minutes are greater than 10, the word 分 is optional:
七點十五 or 七點十五分
"This morning" is 今天上午, not for example 這個上午; "every afternoon" is 每天下午, not 每下午.
A time-word or -expression is normally placed either after the subject or at the beginning of a sentence:
我們十點半上中文課
十點半我們上中文課
Some notes:
A time-word does not take a preposition:
A time-word should not be placed at the end of a sentence:
If you have more than one time-word, the bigger unit goes before the smaller:
If you have both time-word and place-word, usually the time-word goes first:
Time-word + 的 + noun (time-words modifying nouns)
When used by itself, 以前 means "previously" or "before" and 以後 means "later", "afterwards" or "in the future":
When used together with a time-word or verb phrase, 以前 means "before..." and 以後 means "after...":
N.B. When 以前 or 以後 is used together with a time-word or verb phrase to mean "before" or "after", the word order is exactly the opposite of the English equivalent:
跟 as a preposition means "with", and 一起 means "together". This pattern is used to indicate that A and B do something together. Here 跟 can be replaced with 和 without changing the meaning; and the phrase 一起 is optional.
N.B. This pattern of A 跟 B (一起) is always placed before the main verb in the sentence. Hence the following sentence, with English word order, is wrong:
In Chinese, an alternative question is formed by using 還是 to connect two choices, which can be nouns, noun phrases, verbs, verb phrases, or clauses:
你喜歡紅茶還是綠茶﹖ (nouns)
這本書是你的還是她的﹖ (noun phrases)
下午你來還是不來﹖ (verbs)
你要聽古典音樂還是聽現代音樂﹖ (verb phrases)
今天晚上你來我這兒還是我去你那兒﹖ (clauses)
Note:
the two items connected by 還是 are normally parallel in structure; and
as with affirmative-negative questions and questions with interrogative words, alternative questions do not have 嗎 at the end.
In Chinese a sentence can contain several verbs. A pivotal sentence is one in which the object of the first verb is at the same time the subject of the following verb. This object therefore functions as a pivot, connecting the two verb clauses in the sentence.
The first verb in a pivotal sentence is often a causative verb (to cause something to happen) such as 請, 讓 or 叫. All three carry the meaning of asking somebody to do something. Of the three, 請 is the most polite; 讓 is less so, and 叫 is the least polite. So watch out for the occasions when these verbs can be used appropriately. Observe:
Notice that although the English equivalents all employ "to ask", the Chinese sentences use different words to indicate various degrees of politeness.
Note:
Besides the use of 請 above (meaning "to ask someone to do something"), 請 can also be used to mean "to invite":
To negate a pivotal sentence, put the negative adverb 不 before the first verb:
別 and 不要 both mean "do not". They can be used in negative imperative sentences with or without a subject. They are placed between the subject (if present) and the verb or adjective:
(你) 別 (or 不要) 告訴他﹗
別喝酒﹗ 別去那兒﹗
不要吸煙﹗ 下午不要去﹗
Neither of these can be used to indicate negation in declarative sentences. It is wrong to say 爸爸別請他走. One can say instead 爸爸不請他走.
年, year
月, month
星期, week
Use 日 or 號 for a specific date. Usually 日 is used in written and formal language and 號 is used in conversation. The word 天 should be used in counting the number of days:
Some notes:
When there are several units, the bigger comes first and the calendar date comes before the day of the week:
一九九六年十一月二十五號星期一
一七八九年七月十四日
Notice the following special ways of expressing the date and month:
Note the English phrase "last Monday" may therefore be rendered as 這個星期一, if Monday has already passed and the phrase is therefore referring to Monday of this week. The same applies for future days, and for months.
Two points need to be observed when using a verb or verb-phrase as a modified to form a relative clause:
Unlike in English, all modifiers go before the element they modify in Chinese:
他喝的水不很乾淨
這是我朋友送我的禮物
The word 的 has to be inserted between the modifier and the element it modifies:
Sentences with an adjectival predicate
The verb 是 is not normally used in the predicate for a sentence where the main element of the predicate is an adjective:
我們今天很高興。
她的絲線衫太小。
那個服務員非常年輕。
In an affirmative sentence of this type, if the adjective is not preceded by adverbs such as 真, 太, 非常 or 更, it is usually qualified by the adverb 很. In such cases, 很 does not really mean "very"; 他很忙 and 他忙 mean virtually the same.
Also, adverbs such as 很, 常, 也, 非常, 太 or 更 cannot be used in affirmative-negative sentences of this type:
你高興不高興﹖ but not 你很高興不很高興﹖
她年輕不年輕﹖ but not 她非常高興不非常高興﹖
你去不去﹖ but not 你也去不去﹖
In general, 祝你 is used to extend well-wishes in advance whereas 祝賀你 is used to congratulate someone on something already accomplished:
祝你生日好﹗ (One can say this on the day, or in advance.)
祝賀你﹗ (Say this only when something has already been accomplished.)
Reduplication of verbs
To indicate that an action is only of a short duration or to soften the tone of a sentence in order to make it less formal, a verb can be repeated:
我給你們介紹介紹。 (Notice the pattern is ABAB, not AABB.)
你們想去看看她嗎﹖
讓我想想。
In the case of a monosyllabic verb, the character 一 can be inserted:
讓我想一想。
我們都想看一看她。
Repeating a verb has the same effect as using the adverb 一下兒 after the verb:
用一下兒 = 用用 = 用一用
看一下兒 = 看看 = 看一看
介紹一下兒 = 介紹介紹
Words such as 上邊, 左邊, 前邊, 中間, 對面 are position words. Some of the basic syllables are:
|
上 - up |
|
左 - left |
中 - middle |
右 - right |
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下 - down |
|
|
||
前 - front |
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裡 - in |
後 - back |
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外 - out |
Usually, add 邊 to make "on the left", "above", "outside" etc.
Position words can be used in two ways. Compare:
Noun (+ 的) + position word:
Position word + 的 + noun (here the 的 is mandatory).
Notes:
When 上邊, 下邊, 裡邊 and 外邊 are modified by other nouns, the character 邊 can be omitted:
Do not use 裡邊 in the following two cases:
After geographical names such as 中國, 北京 etc:
In a phrase of the form "在 + place, building or organisation":
There are three ways to indicate the location of something, using 在, 有 and 是 respectively and with different meanings:
To show that there is something in a certain place: 有
Position word + 有 + indefinite noun:
To show that certain things exist in certain places: 在
Definite noun + 在 + position word:
To identify something that is known to exist at a certain place: 是
Position word + 是 + definite/indefinite noun:
To show an action which is, was or will be going on, use one of the following patterns:
Notes:
All the above sentences mean the same, stylistic differences excepted.
The progressive aspect can be applied not only to the present, but also to past and future actions:
As shown above, either 在, 正 or 正在 can be placed before a verb to indicate the progressive aspect of an action.
Alternatively, 呢 can be placed at the end of the sentence to perform the same function. Sometimes 呢 can be used together with 在, 正 or 正在.
The negative form of the progressive aspect is indicated by 沒有, not 不, before the verb; and it can be shortened to 沒 alone if it is not at the end of a sentence or a short answer. Otherwise the full form of 沒有 must be used:
If both the 在 of the progressive aspect and the 在 of location exist in a sentence, only one should be used:
An entire subject-predicate construction (a sentence or clause) such as 我給她打電話, 他今天買, 我們去北京參觀 can be used as a modifier for a noun. When used this way, there must be a 的 inserted between the construction and the noun it modifies:
The subject-predicate construction always goes immediately before the 的, which goes immediately before the noun to be modified.
Both terms can be translated as "to visit" in English. However, while 參觀 implies 觀 (to see), 訪問 stresses 問 (to ask). Hence 參觀 really implies observation while visiting and 訪問 means to visit people with specific purpose such as interviews. 參觀 can be followed by places but not people; whereas 訪問 can take either, but most commonly people.
Measure word 些
些 is a measure word showing indefinite quantity. It is usually used after demonstrative pronouns such as 這, 那, 哪 and after the numeral 一:
Don't attempt to mix 些 with definite measures. It is wrong to say 這些三本詞典 (these three dictionaries); one can only say 這三本詞典.
Earlier we saw the construction with simple nouns, pronouns or adjectives:
But the 是 . . . 的 construction can also be used with prepositional phrases and even whole verbal constructions:
A complement is a word or phrase attached after a verb to explain or complete the meaning of the action. Complements are used to show duration, extent, quantity, degree, result, direction or possibility of an action. Complements always appear after the verbs they modify.
We know that in Chinese modifiers are generally placed before the words they modify; so why do complements appear after? It's because Chinese word order often observes the time sequence in which an action occurs. Notice, for example:
Since one has to leave the bookshop before going to the cinema, the Chinese sentence follows this time sequence. Similarly, since a verbal action has to take place first, before one can see its extent or result, the complement placed after the verb observes this time sequence.
This is used to show the extent or degree of an action. Normally adjectives are used for the complement, and the structural particle 得 is used to connect the verb and its complement:
The basic patterns for the complement of degree are as follows:
Verb without object: V + 得 + adjective
Verb with object: V + O + V + 得 + adjective
Verb with preposed object: O + V + 得 + adjective
Place 不 before the adjective to make the negative:
Questions are formed as follows:
Note that the complement of degree cannot be used with verbs such as 有, 在 or 是, since those verbs normally do not denote actions.
Either term can be used to soften the tone when placed at the end of a question. However, they differ in usage.
呢 is primarily used to indicate a mood of enquiry. It may appear in questions with interrogative words such as 什麼 or 哪兒; affirmative-negative questions such as 有沒有呢﹖好吃不好吃呢﹖; or alternative questions with 還是, such as 吃面包還是火腿呢﹖
吧, on the other hand, is employed at the end of a question to indicate a mood of uncertainty or speculation on the part of the speaker: 在這兒停車吧﹖ 你不知道吧﹖
呢 in this case is used to indicate the progressive aspect of an action (e.g. 她學中文呢), or to affirm some fact, sometimes with exaggeration (e.g. 晚上電影九點才開始呢。 從這兒去要走三天呢。)
吧 is often added at the end of an imperative sentence to soften the tone, as in 我們走吧。 你再想想吧。
Optative or auxiliary verbs are those placed before other verbs to express intention, wishes, possibility etc.
To express subjective wish, desire or request:
To express objective necessity:
To express ability or skill acquired:
To express ability depending on circumstances:
Note, in both cases use 不能 for negative sentences.
To express permission:
To express possibility or probability:
To express need arising from moral or factual necessity:
Note:
To make a negation, put the negative word 不 or 沒有 before the optative verb:
To form an affirmative-negative question, alternate the optative verb instead of the main verb in the sentence:
It is possible to use more than one optative verb in a sentence:
就 and 才 are often used before the main verb to indicate the speaker's attitude as to whether the action expressed by the main verb is earlier (就) or later (才) than expected:
Compare the following sentences:
As shown in the above sentences, when there is a time-word in a sentence, 就 and 才 should be placed after it; when there is an optative verb, on the other hand, 就 and 才 should be placed before it. Here is the pattern:
Both of these conjunctions can be translated as "or" in English, but they differ in usage: in general, 或者 is used in non-interrogative sentences to indicate a choice:
還是, on the other hand, is more often than not reserved for alternative questions:
It can also be used in subordinate clauses with verbs such as 知道, 告訴 etc:
In cases in which both 或者 and 還是 can appear in questions, there are some subtle differences in their anticipations and tones:
In dialogue 1, A asks an alternative question which anticipates a choice from the answer. The two terms with 還是 are mutually exclusive. In dialogue 2, the question is a general one using 嗎 at the end. It does not anticipate a strict choice from the answer, so B can give a general answer: 我想去 -- yes, I do -- and then add his more specific thought: 我兩個地方都想去. The two items with 或者 in the question are therefore not mutually exclusive.
Sometimes, however, 還是 can also be used in a non-interrogative sentence. For instance:
Notice in the sentence the tone is still somehow interrogative, compelling 他 to make a choice. In contrast, 或者 in this case can only convey a sort of explanatory note:
The meanings of the four terms here overlap.
Both 了解 and 知道 can mean "to know". However, 了解 implies some level of understanding and comprehension of what one knows. Therefore 了解 can be understood as a deeper or better knowing than 知道. Compare:
認識 is used to indicate that one can recognise this as this and not others. It can also involve the process of acquiring such an ability.
懂, on the other hand, is a direct equivalent of "to understand". Its definition is not as broad as that of 了解 (to know and understand) and is different from that of 知道 (to know).
Of these, sentence 3 wants to know more detailed information about him than sentence 2, and sentence 2 wants more detailed information than sentence 1.
The aspect particle 了 is added to the end of a verb to indicate the completion of an action. In general, Chinese perfect aspect is equivalent to perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect or future perfect) in English. So, the completion of an action can take place in the past or in the future. For instance:
On the other hand, a past action is not always followed by the aspect particle 了, if it is a simple statement or a habitual action and there is no need to emphasise its completion:
Affirmative sentence
Negative sentence (note 了 is dropped here)
Interrogative sentence
If the verb has an object and there is no adverbial in the sentence, the object should normally carry some modifiers (e.g. numeral + measure-word or other attributives). Otherwise the sentence sounds incomplete:
If a sentence carries several verbs and the actions indicated by those verbs are related, then the perfect aspect particle 了 is usually placed after the last verb.
In sentence a, "write" is related to "use" because the letter is written by using Chinese; in sentence b, similarly, "buy" is related to "enter the city" because the purpose of entering the city is to buy the dictionaries. Compare the above sentences with the following, with a different structure:
Here "class is over" (下課) and "go to the library" are unrelated. They are contained in the sentence simply to indicate their sequence. Hence it is wrong to say
When the verb is reduplicated, the perfect aspect particle 了 is placed before the reduplicated verb:
All three of these adverbs indicate the repetition of an action, like the English "again". They differ in usage, however:
Whereas 又 indicates a repetition of an action that has already taken place, 再 implies a repetition of an action in the future. Also, 再 is only used in declarative sentences, plus questions ending in 好嗎:
Also, 又 can be used for the repetition of a periodic action or occurrence, even though it has not yet taken place:
還, on the other hand, usually expresses a future repetition:
It can also be used in an interrogative or declarative sentence with an optative verb. In this situation, it is placed before the optative verb and an optional 再 can be placed after:
The modal particle 了 is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate that the event referred to took place in the past. The difference between 了 as modal particle and 了 to indicate perfect aspect is that the latter only shows the completion of the verb, whereas the former shows the completion of the whole sentence or event, implying some change of situation.
The first 了 in the sentence above indicates only the completion of the action of 買書, whereas the second 了 marks some change of situation on the part of 他 as a result of the completion of the book-buying process: originally he did not have the book, but now he has.
(Please compare against the patterns for the perfect aspect in the previous section.)
Affirmative sentence
Negative sentence (note 了 is dropped here)
Interrogative sentence
As is obvious, when there is no object, one cannot tell the perfect aspect 了 from the modal particle 了. In such a case, 了 can be regarded as fulfilling both functions:
A simple statement about events that happened in the past does not require a 了 at the end of the sentence:
To indicate that two actions take place, one immediately after the other, we use the pattern
The above pattern can be used for future actions as well. To indicate that both actions took place in the past, the particle 了 has to be inserted at the end of the sentence:
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