Table of Contents

Measure Words For Nouns

What are measure words?

When and where to use measure words

Creating an emphasis on each individual

Measure words substituting for nouns to avoid repetition

Some commonly used measure words

Change of State le 了

What is the change-of-state le 了?

Change-of-state le 了 used in sentences with different predicates

The change-of-state le 了 in negative sentences

Question forms

Change vs. no change

Perfective – le 了 Vs Particle le 了

Aspect versus tense

Perfective aspect particle le 了 (or verb-suffix le 了)

Modal particle le 了(or sentence-end le 了)

Aspect particle le了 and modal particle le了 used together with a quantified object or duration (so far, up to now)

Aspect particle le了 and modal particle le了 used together without a quantified object or duration between them

Where verb suffix –le 了 is not used

VI. Where verb suffix - le 了 is not used

‘Shì ... de ' (是 ... 的) Construction

What is the'sh 是 ... de 的 ' construction and when is it used?

The structure of the'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

Circumstantial elements that the'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

The negative form of the'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

The placement of adverbs

Stress

The omission of shì 是

Other question forms of the'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

The'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction and sentences with le 了

Directional Complements

Simple Directional Complements

Compound Directional Complements

Extended meaning of some directional complements

The Complement Of Degree

What is the complement of degree?

The structure of the complement of degree

The negative forms

The question forms

When to use the complement of degree?

Complement of degree vs. potential complement

The Complement Of Result

What are resultative complements?

What can serve as a complement of result?

Sentence structures with resultative complements

Declarative sentences

Negative sentences

Interrogative sentences

The complement of result used in bǎ 把 sentences

Stative verbs as complements

Verbs as complements

The Potential Complement

What is the potential complement?

The structure and features of the potential complement

The potential complement and the complement of degree in contrast

The potential complement in idiomatic expressions

Bǎ “把” Construction

What is the bǎ 把construction?

When to use the bǎ把 construction

The object after bǎ把

The elements after the predicate verb

Modal verbs and adverbials in bǎ 把sentences.

Verbs which may not be used as the predicate verb in a bǎ把 sentence.

Potential complements cannot be used in the bǎ把 construction

The structure of bǎ 把 sentences

Measure Words For Nouns

I. What are measure words?

II. When and where to use measure words

III. Making an emphasis on each individual

IV. Measure words substituting for nouns to avoid repetition

V. Some commonly used measure words

What are measure words?

English numerals and demonstratives directly qualify countable nouns, for example, five books, three cars and this student. However, Chinese numerals, demonstrative pronouns such as zhè 这 (this) and nà 那 (that) and interrogative pronouns such as nǎ 哪 (which) and jǐ 几 (how many) cannot directly qualify nouns without a grammatical element between them. English also has uncountable nouns such as air, water, steel, tea, meat and so on which cannot be directly qualified by numerals. For example, it is ungrammatical to say an air, two waters, and one hundred steels instead of a puff of air, two bottles of water and one hundred tons of steel. Chinese nouns resemble English uncountable nouns in that they need a grammatical element to link them to the numeral. Moreover, Chinese nouns also need such an element to link to demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. This grammatical element is called a measure word.

There are two types of measure word: standard measures and classifying measures.

“Standard measure words express universally accepted concepts of measurement on the one hand and packaging, grouping and partitioning on the other.” (Yip and Rimmington 2004, p.27). For example, shí lǐ lù 十里路 (ten miles), yì bēi chá 一杯茶 (a cup of tea), yì qún háizi 一群孩子 (a crowd of children).

Classifying measures “are not measures in the real sense of the word, but indicators of prominent features which can be attached to a particular set or class of nouns. That is why they are sometimes called classifiers by some grammarians.” (Yip and Rimmington 2004, p.27). For example, sì běn shū 四本书 (four books), sān tiáo yú 三条鱼 (three fish) and yì bǎ dāo 一把刀 (a knife).

One must memorize the measure word along with the noun it matches just as one would have to do when studying some English nouns and measure words, such as a flock of birds, a band of horses, a pack of wolves, etc. One may not say, for example, two gangs of bread, a loaf of furniture or three flocks of pigs.

There is a generic measure word, gè 个 (usually read in neutral tone), but it does not go with every noun. If you forget the measure word of a noun or simply don't know the measure word of a noun, you can try gè 个 and you will luck out sometimes.

When and where to use measure words

It is OBLIGATORY to use a measure word when a numeral, a demonstrative pronoun, or an interrogative pronoun qualifies a noun.

1. Between a numeral and a noun.

numeral + measure word + noun

wǔ bēi chá
五杯茶
five cups of tea

sān běn shū
三本书
three books

yì diǎnr jiǔ
一点儿酒
a little bit of wine

liǎng wèi lǎoshī
两位老师
two teachers

Note that the numeral for 'two ' of something is 'liǎng 两 ', not èr 二.

2. Between a demonstrative pronoun (zhè 这 this, nà 那 that) and a noun, when the numeral is yī 一 (one), yī 一 (one) has been omitted. Note that when used before numeral and measure words zhè 这 and nà 那 are often pronounced as zhèi 这 and nèi 那 in spoken Chinese.

zhèi 这 or nèi 那 + (one) + measure word + noun

zhèi běn shū
这本书
this book

nèi ge rén
那个人
that person

zhèi sān běn shū
这三本书
these three books

The numeral cannot be omitted if it is greater than one. Also note that the demonstrative pronoun with a measure word is zhèi 这 (this) or nèi 那 (that), not zhèixiē 这些 (these) or nèixiē 那些 (those). In other words, in Chinese the singular demonstrative is used with numerals bigger than 'one ', i.e. 'this three... ' or 'that five... ' instead of 'these three... ' or 'those five... ' for multiple objects with specified number.
See the examples below:

zhèi xiē shū
这些书
these books

When demonstratives are used to point at multiple objects with unspecified number, Chinese uses zhèi xiē 这些 (these) and nèi xiē 那些 (those). When xiē 些 , literally meaning 'a small amount ', is used, it serves as a measure word and replaces the original measure word of the noun.

zhèi xiē běn shū.
这些本书
these books

It would be incorrect to use a measure word when you are already using xiē 些.

3. Between the interrogative pronoun nǎ/něi 哪 (which) and a noun, when the numeral is one but has been omitted.

nǎ/něi 哪 + (one) + measure word + noun

Něi běn shū？
哪本书？
Which book?

4. Between the interrogative pronoun jǐ 几 (how many; how much) and a noun. Jǐ 几 is used for numbers smaller than ten. Jǐ 几 also means 'several', 'a few' 'some' or 'a couple of ' and it requires a measure word before the noun. If the number is expected to be greater than ten, the interrogative pronoun should be duō shǎo 多少 (how many; how much), which does not take a measure word.

jǐ 几 + measure word + noun

Jǐ běn shū?
几本书？
How many books? (expecting a number smaller than ten)

Compare withduō shǎo多少 for numbers greater than ten. It does not take a measure word.

Duō shǎo shū? (NO MEASURE WORD)
多少书？
How many books? (expecting a number bigger than ten)

Creating an emphasis on each individual

Some measure words and nouns indicating measure can be reduplicated and followed by dōu 都 (all) to mean 'each and every (without exception)' such as gè 个, tiān 天 (day), nián 年(year), jiā 家 (family), rén人 (person). This is a very strong way to say 'every', stronger than měi 每 (every). The emphasis is on the fact that there are no exceptions.

Lǎo Wáng de háizi gè gè dōu huì shuō Fǎyǔ.
老王的孩子个个都会说法语。
Each and every one of Old Wang's children speaks French.

Wǒ tiān tiān dōu kàn bào.
我天天都看报。
I read newspapers every single day.

Měiguó rén jiā jiā dōu yǒu diànhuà.
美国人家家都有电话。
Each and every American family has a telephone.

Measure words substituting for nouns to avoid repetition

In English, the numeral, 'one' can be used to replace a noun after a demonstrative or an adjective to avoid repetition. In Chinese, the same purpose is achieved in two ways, depending on what is before the noun.

If a demonstrative or interrogative pronoun is before the noun, the appropriate measure word can substitute for the noun;

English:

demonstrative pronoun + one
These two books are both in foreign languages. This one is in Japanese; that one is in French.

Note that the numeral, 'one', replaces the noun, 'book'.

Chinese:

demonstrative pronoun + measure word
Zhèi liǎng běn shū dōu shì wàiwén de. Zhèi běn shì Rìwén de, nèi běn shì Fǎwén de.
这两本书都是外文的。这本是日文的，那本是法文的。

Note that the measure word, běn 本, replaces the noun, shū 书 book.

English:

interrogative pronoun + one
Which one of these two books is yours?

Note that the numeral, 'one', replaces the noun, 'book'.

Chinese:

interrogative pronoun + measure word
Zhèi liǎng běn shū něi běn shì nǐ-de?
这两本书哪本是你的？

Note that the measure word for book, běn 本, replaces the noun, shū 书 book.

If the noun being replaced is preceded by an adjective, it is replaced by de 的.

English:

adjective + one
A: Which one of these two books is yours?
B: The new one is mine.

Note that the numeral, 'one ', replaces the noun, 'book '.

Chinese:

adjective + de 的
A: Zhèi liǎng běn shū něi běn shì nǐ-de?
这两本书哪本是你的？
B: Xīn de shì wǒ-de.
新的是我的。

Note that de 的 replaces the noun, shū 书 book.

Some commonly used measure words

Change of State le 了

What is the change-of-state le 了?

Change-of-state le 了used in sentences with different predicates

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a noun predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a stative verb predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate in which an optative or modal verb occur before the main verb.

le 了 at the end of a shì 是 sentence.

le 了 at the end of a yǒu 有 sentence.

The change-of-state le 了in negative sentences

Question forms

Change vs. no change

What is the change-of-state le 了?

As a modal particle, the sentence-end le 了 indicates that a new situation has emerged or a change has taken place. We often call this sentence-final modal particle 'change-of-state le 了' or 'new situation marker le 了'. Compare the following sentences. One has a le 了 at the end while the other does not. They convey different meanings.

Tiānqi rè le.
天气热了。
The weather has become hot.

This sentence implies that the weather was not hot before but now it has changed.

Tiānqi hěn rè.
天气很热。
The weather is hot.

Without the modal particle le 了, the sentence simply announces the fact that the weather is hot.

Change-of-state le 了 used in sentences with different predicates

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a noun predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a stative verb predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate in which an optative or modal verb occur before the main verb.

le 了 at the end of a shì 是 sentence.

le 了 at the end of a yǒu 有 sentence.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a noun predicate.

The new situation marker le 了 is used at the end of a sentence in which the predicate is a noun, a stative verb or an action verb. An action verb may be preceded by an optative or modal verb. The change-of-state le 了 is also used in shì 是 and yǒu 有 sentences.

Le 了 at the end of a sentence with a noun as the predicate.

1.Jīntiān xīngqīwǔ le.
今天星期五了。
Today is Friday (already). It has turned into Friday today.

The underlying statement is that time has passed and it has changed from Thursday into a new day, Friday. If le 了 is eliminated, the sentence simply announces the day of the week. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

2. Jīntiān xīngqīwǔ.
今天星期五。
Today is Friday.

This sentence simply states the fact that 'today' is Friday.

3. Xiànzài yǐjīng shí yuè le.
现在已经十月了。
It is already October now. /It has already become October now.

This sentence shows that time has passed and that it has progressed into a new month, October. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

4. Xiànzài shì shí yuè.
现在是十月。
It is October.

This sentence simply announces the fact that the month in question is October.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a stative verb predicate.

Tiānqi lěng le.
天气冷了。
The weather has become cold.

This sentence implies that it wasn't cold before and that the weather has changed. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tiānqi hěn lěng.
天气很冷。
The weather is cold.

This sentence simply states the fact that the weather is cold.

Dōngxi dōu guì le.
东西都贵了。
Things have all become expensive.

This sentence implies that things were not expensive before and that the price has changed. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Dōngxi dōu hěn guì.
东西都很贵。
Things are all expensive.

This sentence simply states the fact that things are expensive.

In a sentence that has a stative verb as the predicate, the adverb hěn 很 is used unless a comparison is to be made. If the sentence takes a change-of-state le 了, hěn 很 is eliminated. This is because a change in situation often implies a comparison with the past. For example, when one says that the weather has become cold, it is a result of comparison with an earlier situation.

Tiānqi hěn lěng le.(ungrammatical)
天气很冷了。
(The weather has become cold.)

Tiānqi lěng le.(grammatical)
天气冷了。
The weather has become cold.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate.

Yīnwèi hē chá duì shēntǐ hěn hǎo, suǒyǐ tā hē chá le.
因为喝茶对身体很好，所以他喝茶了。
Because drinking tea is good for one's health, now he drinks tea.

This sentence implies that the person, 'he', did not drink tea before, but now he has changed. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Yīnwèi hē chá duì shēntǐ hěn hǎo, suǒyǐ tā hē chá.
因为喝茶对身体很好，所以他喝茶。
He drinks tea because it is good for one's health.

This sentence simply reports the fact that 'he' drinks tea as a habitual action because of its benefits.

Tā chī sù le, bié zuò ròu cài.
他吃素了，别做肉菜。
He has become a vegetarian now. (Lit. He now eats vegetarian food.) Don't make meat dishes.

This sentence implies that 'he ' used to eat meat. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tā chī sù, bié zuò ròu cài.
他吃素，别做肉菜。
He's a vegetarian. Don't make meat dishes.

This sentence does not imply any change. It only states a fact that the person, 'he', is a vegetarian.

le 了 at the end of a sentence with a verb predicate in which an optative or modal verb occur before the main verb.

Tā huì kāi chē le.
他会开车了。
Now he is able to drive a car.

This sentence implies that 'he' did not know how to drive. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tā huì kāi chē.
他会开车。
He is able to drive a car.

This sentence simply states the fact that 'he' can drive. It does not imply any change.

Wǒ xǐhuan xué Hànzì le.
我喜欢学汉字了。
I have taken a liking to studying Chinese characters.

This sentence implies that 'I' did not like to study characters previously. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Wǒ xǐhuan xué Hànzì.
我喜欢学汉字。
I like studying Chinese characters.

This sentence simply states the fact that 'I' like to study Chinese characters.

le 了 at the end of a shì 是 sentence.

Xiànzài shì xiàtiān le, cài dōu piányi le.
现在是夏天了，菜都便宜了。
It's summer now, (so) vegetables have become inexpensive.

This sentence implies that vegetables were expensive before. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Xiànzài shì xiàtiān, cài dōu hěn piányi.
现在是夏天，菜都很便宜。
It's summer now, vegetables are inexpensive.

This sentence simply states the fact that the time is summer and that vegetables are inexpensive. It does not imply any change.

Tā shì lǎoshī le.
他是老师了。
He is a teacher now. He has become a teacher now.

This sentence shows that 'he' has come to a new stage of his life or a change in identity. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tā shì lǎoshī.
他是老师。
He's a teacher.

This sentence simply announces 'his' identity as a teacher.

le 了 at the end of a yǒu 有 sentence.

Tāmen yǒu háizi le, méiyǒu shíjiān kàn diànshì le.
他们有孩子了，没有时间看电视了。
They have got a child now, (so) they don't have time to watch TV any more.

This sentence implies that 'they' did not have a child before and that they used to watch TV. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tāmen yǒu háizi, méiyǒu shíjiān kàn diànshì.
他们有孩子，没有时间看电视。
They have a child, (and) they don't have time to watch TV.

This sentence simply states the fact that 'they' have a child and they do not have time to watch TV.

Xiànzài tāmen yǒu chē le, suǒyǐ chángcháng lái kàn wǒmen.
现在他们有车了，所以常常来看我们。
Now they've got a car, so they often come to see us.

The sentence implies that 'they' did not have a car before and 'they' often visit 'us' because of the change of situation. Compare it with the following sentence which does not have the change-of-state le 了.

Tāmen yǒu chē, suǒyǐ chángcháng lái kàn wǒmen.
他们有车，所以常常来看我们。
They have a car, so they often come to see us.

This sentence simply states the fact that 'they' own a car which allows them to visit 'us' often.

The change-of-state le 了 in negative sentences

Negative sentences with a change-of-statele 了 at the end show that a situation or action has stopped or a plan has changed. “bù 不...le 了” or “méi yǒu 没有 ... le 了” means “no longer ...” or “not ... any more”.

Xiànzài shì chūntiān le, tiānqi bù lěng le.
现在是春天了，天气不冷了。 It's spring now, (and) the weather is not cold any longer.

This sentence shows that the cold weather has come to an end.

Tā bú zài zhèr gōngzuò le.
他不在这儿工作了。
He does not work here any more.

This sentence shows that 'he' has stopped working here.

Míngtiān wǒmen bú qù Běihǎi Gōngyuán le.
明天我们不去北海公园了。
Tomorrow we are no longer going to Beihai Park .

The sentence implies that originally 'we' planned to go to Beihai Park but now the plan has changed.

Question forms

A sentence with a change-of-state le 了 can take ma 吗 at the end of the sentence to form a ma 吗 question. Choice-type questions are not usually used in sentences with a change-of-state le 了 except for sentences in which the predicate verb is preceded by an optative, a dispositional verb or a modal verb (such as huì 会, néng 能, kěyǐ 可以, xiǎng 想, xǐhuan 喜欢, etc.) or in yǒu 有 sentences.

Shān-lǐ tiānqi lěng le ma? (ma 吗 question)
山里天气冷了吗？Has the weather become cold in the mountains?

Nǐ huì kāi chē le ma? (ma 吗 question)
你会开车了吗？
Are you able to drive now?

Nǐ huì bú huì kāi chē le? (choice-type question)
你会不会开车了？
Are you able to drive now?

Huì le. Hái bú huì.
会了。还不会。Yes, I am. Not yet.

Change vs. no change

If things have not changed or the situation still remains the same, hái 还 is usually used. Compare the following pairs of sentences.

Change

1.1

Yǐqián tā hěn pàng, xiànzài tā shòu le
以前他很胖，现在他瘦了。
Before he was fat, (but) now he has become thin.

No change

1.2

Yìqián tā hěn pàng, xiànzài tā hái hěn pàng.
以前他很胖，现在他还很胖。
He was fat before (and) he still is now.

Change

2.1

Yǐqián tā hěn xǐhuan hē jiǔ, xiànzài tā bù xǐhuan hē le.
以前他很喜欢喝酒，现在他不喜欢喝了。
Before he used to like to drink, (but) now he doesn't any more.

No change

2.2

Yǐqián tā hěn xǐhuan hē jiǔ, xiànzài tā hái hěn xǐhuan hē jiǔ.
以前他很喜欢喝酒，现在他还很喜欢喝酒。
Before he used to like to drink, (and) he still does now.

Change

3.1

Yǐqián tā xué Zhōngwén, xiànzài tā bù xué le.
以前他学中文，现在他不学了。
He used to study Chinese before, (but) now he doesn't.

No change

3.2

Yǐqián tā xué Zhōngwén, xiànzài tā hái xué.
以前他学中文，现在他还学。
Before he used to study Chinese, (and) he still does now.

Click the icon to ask your teacher if you have questions as to this grammar note.

Perfective – le 了 Vs Particle le 了

Aspect versus tense

Perfective aspect particle le (or verb-suffix le 了)

A. Verb taking a quantified object or complement of duration

B. Verb taking a modified object

C. Verb with a built-in terminal point

D. First event in a series

E. Verb taking a series of unquantified objects

F. Verb modified by a long adverbial

Modal particle le (or sentence-end le 了)

Le 了is used to affirm the completion of the action and to make a point about the present situation

Le 了is used to ask or answer questions about whether someone has done something. (Did you ...? or Have you ...?)

Le 了is used to ask about what someone did

Le 了is used to ask or answer questions about where someone went/has gone

Le 了is used to ask or answer general questions about who did something without requesting specific information about quantity, duration and so on

Asking and answering questions about how long someone has not done something

Special verbs taking a phrase of duration.

Modal particle le used to sum up after a series of actions

Aspect particle le 了 and modal particle le 了 used together with a quantified object or duration (so far, up to now)

Aspect particle le 了 and modal particle le 了 used together without a quantified object or duration between them

Where verb suffix –le 了 is not used

Habitual activities or repeated events

The first verb in a pivotal construction

The first in a series of verbal expressions

Verbs that take direct quotations

Verbs that take indirect quotations

Dispositional verbs and verbs that show a state of being

Verbs that show ability or possibility

Verbs that take verbal constructions as objects

The verb zài 在

The verb yǒu 有

A verb that follows the adverb cái 才 indicating lateness

A verb that is in the 'shì 是... ...de 的 ' construction

Aspect versus tense

Mandarin learners who are native speakers of an inflectional language, such as English, tend to mistake le 了 for a past tense marker because it is often used in remarks related to past actions or situations. Meanwhile, le 了 also puzzles them when sometimes it is absent from sentences where they expect it to be used. The following four examples all have a time word or expression indicating a past time, yet only two of them use le 了.

Le 了 is used.

Zuótiān wǒ mǎi-le sān běn shū.
昨天我买了三本书。
I bought three books yesterday.

Shàng ge zhōumò wǒ qu Běijīng le.
上个周末我去北京了。
I went to Beijing last weekend.

Le 了 is not used.

Zuótiān wǒ shì wǔ diǎnzhōng huílai de.
昨天我是五点钟回来的。
Yesterday it was at five o'clock that I came back.

Yǐqián wǒ bú cháng yùndòng, suǒyǐ hěn pàng.
以前我不常运动，所以很胖。
Before, I did not often exercise. So I was fat.

The last two examples above show that, even if the time words indicate the past, le 了 is not used in either sentence. If le 了 is not a past tense marker, what is it and how is it used? The discussion should begin with an understanding of the concepts of tense and aspect.

“The category of aspect is very different from that of tense: a marker of tense relates the time of the occurrence of the situation to the time that situation is brought up in speech. In English, for example, we have past tense, as in, 'I proposed a toast', where the suffix -ed signals that the act of proposing took place before the time of speaking. Mandarin has no markers of tense. The language does not use verb affixes to signal the relation between the time of the occurrence of the situation and the time that situation is brought up in speech. Aspect, on the other hand, refers, not to the time relation between a situation and the moment of its being mentioned in speech, but, rather, to how the situation itself is being viewed with respect to its own internal makeup.” (Charles N. Li and Sandra A. Thompson: 1981, p. 184).

Charles Li and Sandra Thompson point out that aspect expresses different ways of viewing a situation. While inflectional languages like English are concerned with marking the time of the action in relation to the time of the remark in which it is brought up, Chinese is more concerned with the developmental stage of an action. A time expression alone or even the context itself is sufficient to show time, such as the past, the present or the future. Therefore, inflection is not at all necessary and is non-existent in Chinese. In a given time frame, in Chinese an action is viewed with an emphasis on a particular phase along the course of its progress, which can be its beginning, its continuation, or its completion. “Each of these stages is referred to as an 'aspect.' A past action has all these aspects, so does a present action and a future action. Therefore, in English, the 'perfective,' or the 'completive,' may appear in the present tense, the past tense or the future tense.” (Hung-nin S. Cheung: 1994, p. 207).

Past perfect: | I had already arrived (when he called).
Present perfect: | I have already arrived.
Future perfect: | I shall have arrived (by eight tomorrow morning).

(Hung-nin S. Cheung: 1994, p. 207).

Knowing the difference between aspect and tense makes it easier to understand that le 了 marks the perfective aspect of an action, not past tense. There are two kinds of le 了 that relate to completed actions. One is the perfective aspect particle le 了, the other is the modal particle le 了. Read on to learn their differences.

Perfective aspect particle le 了 (or verb-suffix le 了)

The perfective aspect particle le 了 marks the perfective state of an action. It indicates that the action is completed. The aspect particle le 了 is placed immediately after the verb. It is also called the verb-suffix-le 了 or verb-le 了. By 'perfective state' we mean that “the action as represented by the verb has attained its completion by a certain reference point in time. The Chinese verb-le serves to mark this perfective aspect. It is an aspect marker and not a past tense indicator. The verb-le can appear with a future action, a present action, or a past action, as long as the context calls for its use.” (H. S. Cheung: 1994, p. 207).

Wǒ mǎi-le sān běn shū.
我买了三本书。
I bought three books.

Note: The aspect particle le 了 after the verb 'mǎi' 买 (to buy) signifies that the action of buying is completed.

Míngtiān wǒ chī-le wǎnfàn jiù qù xuéxiào.
明天我吃了晚饭就去学校。
Tomorrow I will go to school after I eat dinner.

Note: This sentence is about a sequence of actions that will take place in the future. The aspect particle le 了 here signifies the future perfective aspect of the action chī 吃(to eat). Chī-le wǎnfàn 吃了晚饭 here means 'after eating dinner'. It is the first action in the sequence. It is followed by the second one, qù xuéxiào 去学校, which means 'to go to school'.

However, there are strict restrictions on the use of the perfective aspect particle le 了. First, the verb must be an action verb capable of definite termination. Dispositional verbs may not take a verb-le 了. Second, it is used for bounded events. “An event is viewed in its entirety if it is bounded temporally, spatially, or conceptually.” (Charles N. Li and Sandra A. Thompson: 1981, p. 185). According to Li and Thompson, there are essentially four ways in which an event can be bounded.

A. By being a quantified event. (The event is bounded in terms of quantity or duration. The verb takes either a numeral and a measure word or a complement of duration.)

Shàng gè yuè wǒ kàn-le sān běn shū.
上个月我看了三本书。
Last month I read three books.

Note that when the event is quantified in terms of duration, depending on whether the verb takes an object, the sentence may take one of the following three patterns.

Wǒ xiěcuò-le yí gè zì.
我写错了一个字。

I wrote a character incorrectly.

Note that when the verb takes a resultative complement and a quantified object, the perfective aspect particle must be placed after the complement, not the verb.

verb + resultative complement + le 了 + quantified object

Verb without an object taking a complement of duration:

verb-le 了 + duration

Zuótiān wǒ shuì-le bā gè zhōngtóu.
昨天我睡了八个钟头。
Yesterday I slept for eight hours.

Verb taking an object and a complement of duration:

A: verb + object + reduplicated verb-le + duration.

Zuótiān wǒ shuìjiào shuì-le bā gè zhōngtóu.
昨天我睡觉睡了八个钟头。
Yesterday I slept for eight hours.

Note that shuìjiào 睡觉 is a VO compound (Verb shuì 睡+Object jiào 觉). In this sentence, the first verb shuì 睡 in the verbal phrase shuìjiào 睡觉 does not function as the predicate verb. Instead, it takes the object jiào 觉 to simply name the activity meaning something like 'as to sleeping'. The second shuì 睡 is the main verb. This is why the aspect particle le 了 is placed after the second shuì 睡.

Verb taking an object and a complement of duration:

B: verb-le 了 + duration + de 的 + object

Zuótiān wǒ shuì-le bā gè zhōngtóu de jiào.
昨天我睡了八个钟头的觉。
Yesterday I slept for eight hours.

Shuìjiào is a VO compound (Verb shuì 睡 + Object jiào 觉). Not all compounds are VO. Xuéxí 学习 'to study' and gōngzuò 工作 'to work' are VV compounds (Verb xué 学 + Verb xí 习, Verb gōng 工+ Verb zuò作). VV compounds are treated as verbs and thus follow the pattern of 2 above.

B. By being a definite or specific event. (There is elaborately detailed information about the object. In other words, the object must be modified by an attributive clause or other elaborate modifiers.)

Wǒ kàn-le zuótiān wǎnshang de guójì xīnwén.
我看了昨天晚上的国际新闻。
I watched last night's international news.

Wáng tàitai gěi wǒ kàn-le tā zài Rìběn mǎi de nèi běn xīn chūbǎn de Rì-Hàn zìdiǎn.
王太太给我看了她在日本买的那本新出版的日汉字典。
Mrs. Wang showed me the newly published Japanese-Chinese dictionary that she had bought in Japan.

In examples 1 and 2, much detailed information is given about the objects xīnwén 新闻 and zìdiǎn 字典, which makes them very specific. The news is not any news; it is the yesterday-evening-international news. The dictionary is not any dictionary out there in the world; it is the she-bought-in-Japan-that-copy-of-newly-published-Japanese-Chinese dictionary.

C. By being inherently bounded because of the meaning of the verb. Verbs with a built-in terminal point habitually take aspect particle le 了, such as sǐ 死 die, wàng 忘 forget, diū 丢 lose,dǎo 倒 fall, huài 坏 break (as in stop working), mài 卖 sell, and so on.

Wǒ wàng-le guān mén.
我忘了关门。
I forgot to shut the door.

Yú sǐ-le.
鱼死了。
The fish died.

D. By being the first event in a sequence. ('Verb + le 了 + unquantified/unmodified object' means 'after [doing] ...'. It must be followed by another action.)

Míngtiān wǒ chī-le wǎnfàn jiù qù xuéxiào.
明天我吃了晚饭就去学校。
Tomorrow I will go to school after I eat dinner.

If Sentence 1 ended at wǎnfàn 晚饭, that is Míngtiān wǒ chī-le wǎnfàn 明天我吃了晚饭, it would mean'tomorrow after I eat dinner', which is not a complete sentence.

Zuótiān wǒ chī-le wǎnfàn jiù qù xuéxiào le.
昨天我吃了晚饭就去学校了。
Yesterday I went to school after I ate dinner.

The sentence-end le 了 in 2 is a modal particle signifying the completion of the second action. The only difference between 1 and 2 is the use of the modal particle le 了 at the end of 2. In 1 neither action has taken place yet, while in 2 both actions have. However, the aspect particle le 了 in both sentences signifies that the verb it is attached to is the first action in the sequence.

E. When the verb takes a series of unquantified objects.

Zuótiān wǒ kàn-le yǔfǎ, xiě-le Hanzi, tīng-le lùyīn, hái bèi-le duìhuà.
昨天我看了语法，写了汉字，听了录音，还背了对话。
Yesterday I read the grammar, wrote the characters, listened to the recording and memorized the dialogues.

F. When there is a long adverbial in the dependent clause, suffix –le 了 should be used in the main clause

Wǒ gēn Xiǎo Lǐ zài Shànghǎi lǚxíng de shíhou yǐjīng gěi tā dǎ-le diànhuà.

我跟小李在上海旅行的时候已经给他打了电话。

I already called him when Young Li and I were traveling in Shanghai.

Modal particle le 了(or sentence-end le 了)

Le le 了 used to affirm the completion of the action and to make a point about the present situation

Le le 了 used to ask or answer questions about whether someone has done something. (Did you ...? or Have you ...?)

Le le 了 used to ask about what someone did

Le le 了 used to ask or answer questions about where someone went/has gone

Le le 了 used to ask or answer general questions about who did something without requesting specific information about quantity, duration and so on

Asking and answering questions about how long someone has not done something

Special verbs taking a phrase of duration.

Modal particle le used to sum up after a series of actions

III. Modal particle le 了 (or sentence-end le 了)

Modal particles help verbs express different moods. In the case of the modal particle le 了, while representing the completion of the action indicated by the verb, it is used with a different intention than the aspect particle. The modal particle le 了 is used “to affirm the message and make the listener aware of its importance or relevance to the immediate situation.” (Yi Po-Ching and Don Rimmington: 2004, p. 318). As such, the modal particle le 了 is used to explain a present situation. The object the verb takes is usually a generalized one and no specific information about it is given or sought after. The modal particle le 了 is placed at the end of the sentence. It may be difficult to distinguish it from the sentence-end le 了 indicating the emergence of a new situation. However, it is important to note that they both 'acknowledge some change in the picture of things.' (P.C. T 'ung and D. E. Pollard: 1982, p. 142).

A. Le 了 is used to affirm the completion of the action and to make a point about a present situation.

Kèrén dōu dào le. Wǒmén kāishǐ ba.
客人都到了。我们开始吧。
The guests have all arrived. Let 's begin.

The guests' arrival is important or relevant to what is going to happen next.

Tāmén dōu zǒu le. Kěyǐ guān mén le.
他们都走了。可以关门了。
They have all left. You can shut the door.

The said people's departure makes it possible to shut the door.

Wǒ ZUÒ zuòyè le. Bú xìn nǐ kàn.
我做作业了。不信你看。
I DID my homework. (or: I've DONE my homework.) If you don't believe me, you can check it.

The completion of the homework makes the speaker free from some kind of obligation. It may be followed, for example, by a request to let him go out and play with other kids. This tells us that when a speaker uses the modal particle le 了, he has a point to make.

Wǒ yǐjīng gàosù tā le.
我已经告诉他了。
I've already told him.

By affirming the completion of the action, the speaker intends to say that the other person referred to as 'he' already knows about the matter.

Wǒ yǐjīng chī le.
我已经吃了。
I've already eaten. (Don't cook for me any more.)

By affirming the fact that he has eaten, the speaker emphasizes the point that he is not hungry.

When using the modal particle le 了to affirm completion of the action, the speaker always has a point to make about the immediate situation. The modal particle le 了 relates the completion of an action to its impact on the present situation.

B. Le 了 is used to ask or answer questions about whether one has done something. (Did you ...? or Have you ...?)

Nǐ chī fàn le ma?
你吃饭了吗？
Haven you eaten yet?

Chī le.
吃了。
Yes, I have.

Kèrén lái le ma?
客人来了吗？
Have the guests arrived yet?

Lái le.
来了。
Yes, they have.

The Interrogative and the Negative. (The question form may use méi yǒu 没有 instead of ma at the end of the sentence. The negative uses méi yǒu 没有 or méi 没 before the verb, and le 了 is dropped. If the speaker intends to do something, but has not done it yet, he/she uses 'hái méi 还没 ... ne 呢' meaning 'have not ... yet'.

Nǐ zuò zuòyè le méi yǒu? = Nǐ zuò zuòyè le ma?
你做作业了没有？= 你做作业了吗？
Did you do (or: Have you done) your homework?

Méi zuò.(or:Hái méi [zuò] ne.)
做了。（还没 [做] 呢。）
No, I did not. (I haven't [done it] yet.)

C. le 了is used to ask about what someone did.The question uses the modal particlele 了, which is the sentence-end le 了, butthe answer must use the verb-suffixle 了, the aspect particle, and the object must be quantified in terms of quantity or duration. If the verb is qù 去, it usually takes the suffix le 了 and a verbal measure word yí tàng 一趟 (a trip to) before taking the object which indicates a place.

Zuótiān wǎnshang nǐ dōu gàn shénme le?
昨天晚上你都干什么了？
What did you do last night?

Xiě-le yì fēng xìn, kan-le yì huǐr diànshì, hái qu-le yí tàng túshūguǎn.
写了一封信，看了一会儿电视，还去了一趟图书馆。
I wrote a letter, watched a little TV and also went to the library.

Thedōu都used in the question is to show expectation of a list of events.

Shàng gè zhōumò nǐ dōu mǎi shénme le?
上个周末你都买什么了？
What did you buy last weekend?

Méi mǎi shénme. Jiù mǎi-le yì běn xiǎoshuō.
没买什么。就买了一本小说。
I didn't buy much. I only bought a novel.

Wǔfàn nǐ dōu chī shénme le?
午饭你都吃什么了？
What did you eat at lunch?

Wǒ chī-le bàn tiáo yú hé yì diǎnr qīngcài.
我吃了半条鱼和一点儿青菜。
I ate half a fish and some vegetables.

The verb in this type of what-question can be any action verb that takes an object. The important thing is that this type of question asks for very specific information, so the answer must use verb-suffix le 了 and the object must be quantified or modified. The question, however, uses the sentence-end modal particle le 了. “The more specific and delimited the action is made by reference to particular context, the greater the need for this verb-suffix–le, to the degree that it is obligatory where precision is given to the object or complement by quantifying it.” (P.C. T 'ung and D. E. Pollard: 1982, p. 142)

D. le 了 is used to ask or answer questions about where someone went/has gone.

Zuótiān xiàwǔ nǐ qù nǎr le?
昨天下午你去哪儿了？
Where did you go yesterday afternoon?

Wǒ qù túshūguǎn le.
我去图书馆了。
I went to the library.

Note that the following sentence answers the question,“what did you do?” So it is not exactly the answer for the question above,“where did you go?”

Wǒ qù-le yí tàng túshūguǎn.
我去了一趟图书馆。
I went to the library. (Lit. I took a trip to the library.)

Shàng gè zhōumò tāmén dào nǎr qù le?
上个周末他们到哪儿去了？
Where did they go last weekend?

Tāmén dào Shànghǎi qù le.
他们到上海去了。
They went to Shanghai.

E. Le 了 is used to ask or answer general questions about who did something without requesting specific information about quantity, duration and so on. For example, the speaker would ask who bought books instead of who bought three books, or who drank wine instead of who drank two glasses of wine.

Shéi mǎi shū le?
谁买书了？
Who bought books?

Wǒ mǎi (shū) le.
我买（书）了。
I did. (I bought books.)

Shéi qù Zhōngguó le?
谁去中国了？
Who went to China?

Tā qù (Zhōngguó) le.
他去（中国）了。
He did. (He went to China.)

Note that if specific information is sought, the sentence must use verb-suffix le 了 instead of the sentence-end le 了.

Shéi hē-le liǎng bēi jiǔ?
谁喝了两杯酒？
Who drank two glasses of wine?

Wǒ hē-le liǎng bēi jiǔ.
我喝了两杯酒。
I did. (I drank two glasses of wine.)

F. Le 了 is used for asking and answering questions about how long one has not done something or, in other words, time elapsed since one last did something.

Sentence Pattern:

subject + (adverb) + duration + méi 没(or méi yǒu 没有) + verb + (object) + le 了

It is important to note that this pattern places the duration before the verb and uses méi 没 and le 了 in the same sentence.

Wǒ yǐjīng liǎng tiān méi(yǒu) chī fàn le.
我已经两天没吃饭了。
I have not eaten for two days.

Tā yǐjīng sān nián méi xué Zhōngwén le.
他已经三年没学中文了。
He has not studied Chinese for three years.

G. Special verbs taking a phrase of duration. There is a class of verbs describing actions that terminate as soon as they begin, such as: bìyè 毕业 graduate, jiéhūn 结婚 get married, rènshi 认识 meet (in the sense of becoming acquainted for the first time), tuìxiū 退休 retire and so on. They are one-shot actions that do not last. For example, one is either married or not married, retired or not retired. So, to indicate the duration of the state as a result of the action, the sentence must use the sentence-end modal particle le 了. Zài 在 'to be at (a place)' does not belong to this category. It can be compared to a verb of denoting posture. It also uses the sentence-end le 了 when its duration is attached to it.

Tāmén jiéhūn liǎng nián le.
他们结婚两年了。
They have been married for two years. it's been two years since they got married.

Wǒ bìyè shí nián le.
我毕业十年了。
it's been ten years since I graduated.

Wǒmén rènshi liǎng gè yuè le.
我们认识两个月了。
We have known each other for two months. It has been two months since we met.

Lǐ xiānsheng zai Měiguó liǎng gè yuè le.
李先生在美国两个月了。
Mr. Li has been in America for two months.

It is important to note that sǐ 死 'die' belongs to this type of verbs. When it takes a phrase of duration it does not indicate that the action itself is lasting for that duration. What it indicates is the duration of the state as a result of the action, namely, the duration of being dead. Unlike other verbs in this category, sǐ must take a verb-suffix le 了 as well as a sentence-end modal particle le 了. Sì-le 死了 here indicates the state of being dead.

Tā sǐ-le yì nián le.
他死了一年了。
it's been a year since he died. He's been dead for a year.

These special verbs must follow these rules, which are quite different from those that regular verbs have to follow. Please read on to see notes below about how regular verbs use le 了 to indicate actions progressing up to when they are brought up in the conversation.

H. Modal particle le 了 used to sum up after a series of actions

The modal particle le 了 can be used in the narration of a past situation to mark the end of a series of actions before going on to a new one. In order to maintain the continuity of the narration, it is used at the end of each series of actions, not after each action within the series. The following example shows how the modal particle le 了 marks the end of each series of actions within the bigger picture of what happened after the woman made the phone call.

Tā dǎwán diànhuà, liúxià qián, náqǐ shūbāo, jiù chūqu le. Zǒudào xuéxiào dàménkǒur, tā pèngjiàn Zhāng Měiyīng le. Gēn Xiǎo Zhāng shuō-le yìhuǐr huà, tā jiù qù gōnggòngqìchē-zhàn le. Zǒudào chēzhàn, chē hái méi yǒu lái, tā jiù dào pángbiānr de xiǎo shūdiàn qù mǎi bào. Mǎi-le bào, chē yě lái le, tā jiù shàng chē huí jiā le.

她打完电话，留下钱，拿起书包，就出去了。走到学校大门口儿，她碰见张美英了。跟小张说了一会儿话，她就去公共汽车站了。走到车站，车还没有来，她就到旁边儿的小书店去买报。买了报，车也来了，她就上车回家了。

When she finished the phone call, she left the money, picked up her bag and left. When she got to the school gate, she ran into Meiying Zhang. After taking with her for a little while, she went to the bus stop. When she got to the bus stop, the bus had not arrived, so she went to the little bookstore nearby to buy a newspaper. After she got the paper, the bus came. She got on the bus and went home.

Note that the first modal particle le 了 marks the end of a series of actions before the woman went out. This series of actions presents a picture of what she did after making the phone call and before she went out. le 了 may not be used after each action is completed, or it would break the continuity of the narration. The next series of two phrases presents the picture of her going toward the school gate, where the action was stopped by an accidental meeting with a friend. Therefore, the second modal particle is used there to mark the end of that sequence. The third series of actions presents the picture of what happened after she ran into her friend. This series was concluded by her leaving to head for the bus stop. Therefore the third modal particle le 了 is used. The next series of actions presents the picture of what she did while waiting for the bus. This sequence is concluded with the coming of the bus and was therefore marked by the fourth modal particle le 了 at the end of lái 来. The whole narrative was concluded by her getting on the bus and finally heading home, which was marked by the last modal particle le 了.

Tā dǎwán diànhuà le, liúxià qián le, náqǐ shūbāo le, jiù chūqu le. Zǒudào xuéxiào dàménkǒur le, tā pèngjiàn Zhāng Měiyīng le. Gēn Xiǎo Zhāng shuō-le yìhuǐr huà, tā jiù qù gōnggòngqìchē-zhàn le  Zǒudào chēzhàn le, chē hái méi yǒu lái, tā jiù dào pángbiānr de xiǎo shūdiàn qù mǎi bào le. Mǎi-le bào, chē yě lái le  tā jiù shàng chē huí jiā le 

她打完电话了，留下钱了，拿起书包了，就出去了。走到学校大门口儿了，她碰见张美英了。跟小张说了一会儿话，她就去公共汽车站了。走到车站了，车还没有来，她就到旁边儿的小书店去买报了。买了报，车也来了，她就上车回家了。

The example above shows how the continuity would be broken by using the modal particle le 了at the end of each action. Consequently, such narration is unacceptable.

Different languages have their own ways to deal with this problem. The following example shows one of the ways English maintains the continuity of a narrative. Note that in 3 the subject 'she' is not repeated as it is in 4. It shows how one sentence alone is used to present a series of actions, which maintains the flow of ideas. 4, however, repeatedly uses the subject, 'she'. As a result, 4 is broken into many sentences and becomes a poor and unacceptable narrative.

When she finished the phone call, she left the money, picked up her bag and left.

She finished the phone call. She left the money. She picked up her bag. She left.

“This sense of summing up a situation or bringing a particular topic to a close before going on to a new one by the use of end-of-sentence/clause le 了 may also be found with nominal comments. Compare the following pairs of sentences:

孩子今年五岁。
Háizi jīnnián wǔ suì.
The child is 5 years old.

孩子今年五岁了。
Háizi jīnnián wǔ suì le. 
The child is (now) 5 years old.

今天星期六。
Jīntiān xīngqī-liù. 
It's Saturday today.

今天星期六了。
Jīntiān xīngqī-liù le. 
It's (finally) Saturday today.

The first example of each pair only expresses a fact: 'the child is 5 years old' or 'today is Saturday '. The addition of end-of-sentence le 了 conveys the sense of eventually reaching the present situation or position: the child is (now) 5, and today is (finally) Saturday.” (Yip Po-Ching and Don Rimmington: 2004, p. 321)

IV. Aspect particle le 了 and modal particle le 了 used together with a quantified object or duration between them indicates that the action has been progressing up to the time when it is brought up in the conversation and is still progressing.

Quantified object

Wǒ yǐjīng chī-le sì kuài ròu le.
我已经吃了四块肉了。
I've have already eaten four pieces of meat so far.

Duration

Wǒ yǐjīng xué-le liǎng nián le.
我已经学了两年了。
I've already studied for two years. (still studying)

Wǒ xué Zhōngwén yǐjīng xué-le liǎng nián le.
我学中文已经学了两年了。
I've been studying Chinese for two years up to now. (still studying)

Please note that the adverb yǐjīng 已经 must be placed before the predicate verb. The xué 学 in the verbal phrase xué Zhōngwén 学中文 does not function as the predicate verb. Instead, it takes the object Zhōngwén 中文 to simply name the activity meaning something like 'as to studying Chinese'. The second xué 学 is the main verb. Because the adverb modifies the main verb, it must be placed before the main verb.

Wǒ yǐjīng xué-le liǎng nián de Zhōngwén le.
我已经学了两年的中文了。
I've been studying Chinese for two years up to now. (still studying)

V. Aspect particle le 了 and modal particle le 了 used together without a quantified object or duration between them indicates that the action has been completed. Such a usage is the same in meaning and function as one that takes only the modal particle le 了 at the end of the sentence.

Wǒ kàn-le shū le = Wǒ kàn shū le (Kàn is stressed.)
我看了书了。 = 我看书了。
I've read the book.

Where verb suffix –le 了 is not used

Habitual activities or repeated events

The first verb in a pivotal construction

The first in a series of verbal expressions

Verbs that take direct quotations

Verbs that take indirect quotations

Dispositional verbs and verbs that show a state of being

Verbs that show ability or possibility

Verbs that take verbal constructions as objects

The verb zài 在

The verb yǒu 有

A verb that follows the adverb cái 才 indicating lateness

A verb that is in the ‘shì 是... ...de 的 ' construction

VI. Where verb suffix - le 了 is not used

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Habitual activities or repeated events do not take le 了.

Yǐqián tā měitiān zǎoshang dōu xué (x) Yīngwén.
以前他每天早上都学英文。
Before he used to study English every morning.

Qùnián wǒ chángcháng qū (x) Běihǎi gōngyuán.
去年我常常去北海公园。
Last year I often went to Beihai Park.

Yǐqián yīnwèi tā hěn pàng, suǒyǐ dàjiā dōu jiào (x) tā 'Xiǎo Pàngzi'.
以前因为他很胖，所以大家都叫他小胖子。
Before because he was fat, everyone called him 'Little Fatty'.

B. The first verb in a pivotal construction does not take verb-suffix le 了. The second verb takes a sentence-end le 了 if the action is completed. If the object of the second verb is quantified or modified, the second verb takes the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Zuótiān tā qǐng (x) wǒ chī-le yí dùn Zhōngguó fàn.
昨天他请我吃了一顿中国饭。
Yesterday he invited me to eat a meal of Chinese food.

C. The first in a series of verbal expressions does not take le 了. The second verb takes a sentence-end le 了if the action is completed. If the object of the second verb is quantified or modified, the second verb takes the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Shàng ge xīngqī-tiān wǒ qù (x) shūdiàn mai-le yì běn Hàn-Yīng zìdiǎn.
上个星期天我去书店买了一本汉英字典。
Last Sunday, I went to the bookstore and bought a Chinese-English dictionary.

Wǒ yǐjīng dǎ (x) diànhuà gàosù (x) tā zhèi jiànshì le.
我已经打电话告诉他这件事了。
I have already called him to tell him about this matter.

D. Verbs taking a direct quotation do not take verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Tā shuō (x), “Wǒ yǐjīng bìyè sān nián le.”
他说：“我已经毕业三年了。”
He said, “it's been three years since I graduated.”

Tā wèn (x) wǒ: “Nǐ chī fàn le ma?”
他问我：“你吃饭了吗？”
He asked me, “Have you eaten yet?”

E. Verbs taking an indirect quotation do not take verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Tā shuō (x) tā yǐjīng bìyè sān nián le.
他说他已经毕业三年了。
He said that it had been three years since he graduated.

Tā wèn (x) wǒ chī fàn le méi yǒu.
他问我吃饭了没有。
He asked me if I had eaten.

F. Dispositional verbs or verbs showing a state of being, such as juéde 觉得 think/feel, xǐhuan 喜欢 like, ài 爱 love, shì 是 to be, zhīdào 知道 know, etc., do not take verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Zhāng tàitai jiéhūn yǐqián xìng (x) Wang.
张太太结婚以前姓王。
Mrs. Zhang 's family name was Wang before she got married.

Zuótiān tā juéde (x) bú tài shūfu.
昨天他觉得不太舒服。
Yesterday he didn't feel so well.

Yǐqián wǒ zhǐ zhīdào(x) tā huì zuò Zhōngguó fàn, bù zhīdào (x) tā yě huì zuò Yìdàlì fàn.
以前我只知道他会做中国饭，不知道他也会做意大利饭。
Before I only knew he knew how to cook Chinese food, I didn't know he also knew how to cook Italian food.

Yǐqián xué Zhōngwén de xuésheng hěn shǎo (x).
以前学中文的学生很少。
Before there were few students who studied Chinese.

Wǒ zài dàxué dè shíhou, tā shì(x) wǒ-de nǚpéngyou. Wǒ dāngshí fēicháng ài (x) tā.
我在大学的时候，她是我的女朋友。我当时非常爱她。
When I was in college, she was my girlfriend. I loved her very much at that time.

G. Verb showing ability or possibility such as néng 能 (able to), huì 会 (know how to), kěyǐ 可以 (may), etc., do not take verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Wǒ xiǎo de shíhou huì (x) shuō Yīngwén, kěshì xiànzài dōu yǐjīng wàng le.
我小的时候会说英文，可是现在都已经忘了。
When I was young, I could speak English; but I've already forgotten it all now.

Yǐqián zhèi gè dìfang kěyǐ (x) chōu yān, xiànzài bù xíng le.
以前这个地方可以抽烟，现在不行了。
Before smoking was allowed here, (but) not any more now.

H. Verbs taking a verbal construction as object do not take the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Wǒmén juédìng (x) xīngqī-sān chūfā.
我们决定星期三出发。
We have decided to set out on Wednesday

I. The verb zài 在 does not take the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Qùnián wǒ zài (x) Měiguó.
去年我在美国。
Last year I was in America.

J. The verb yǒu 有 does not take the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Yǐqián tā yǒu (x) hěn duō qián.
以前他有很多钱。
Before he had a lot of money.

K. A verb that follows the adverb cái 才 indicating lateness does not take the verb-suffix le 了.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Tā shí diǎn bàn cái zǒu (x).
他十点半才走。
He did not leave until ten o'clock.

L. A verb that is in the 'shì 是... ...de 的 ' construction does not take the verb-suffix le 了. The 'shì 是... ...de 的 'construction is used to emphasize when, where and in what manner an action took place. This construction does not focus on the completion of the action. Instead, it focuses on the circumstances around a completed action. Therefore, le 了 is not used in the 'shì 是... ...de 的 'construction.

Note: (x) means that -le 了 may not be used there.

Nǐ shì shénme shíhou lái (x) de?
你是什么时候来的？
When did you come?

Wǒ shì jiǔ yuè lái (x) de.
我是九月来的。
I came in September.

Person A already knows Person has come back, so the completion of the action 'come ' is not the focus. Person A is only interested in the time when Person came back. This is why le is not used.

Nǐ shì zěnme lái (x) de?
你是怎么来的？
How did you come?

Wǒ shì zuò huǒchē lái (x) de.
我是坐火车来的。
I came by train. /I took the train.

Person A already knows Person B has come back, so the completion of the action 'come ' is not the focus. Person A is only interested in the means of transportation by which Person B came back. This is why le 了 is not used.

Nǐmén shì zài nǎr chī (x) de?
你们是在哪儿吃的？
Where did you eat?

Wǒmén shì zài Guǎngdōng Fànguǎnr chī (x) de.
我们是在广东饭馆儿吃的。
We ate at the Canton Restaurant.

Person A already knows Person B has eaten, so the completion of the action 'eat ' is not the focus. Person A is only interested in the place where Person B ate. This is why le 了 is not used.

'Shì ... de' (是 ... 的) Construction

What is the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction and when is it used?

The structure of the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

Focusing on time (when the action took place)

Focusing on place (where the action took place)

Focusing on manner (in what manner the action took place)

Focusing on company

Focusing on conveyance

Focusing on tool

Focusing on demeanor

Focusing on the agent of the action (who executed the action)

Focusing on the target of the action (for/to whom the action was executed)

. The negative form of the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

The placement of adverbs

Stress

The omission of shì 是

Other question forms of the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

The 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction and sentences with le 了

I. What is the 是 ... 的 construction and when is it used?

The 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction refers to a grammatical structure which focuses on when, where or how an action took place. It is used to seek or provide information about the time, place, manner, agent, or target of the action. For example, if the fact is that Xiǎomíng went to Beijing, and the information to be sought is when, with whom and by what means of transportation that he went to Beijing, the questions and answers would be:

Questions Seeking Information | Questions Seeking Clarification
When did Xiaoming go to Beijing? Xiǎomíng shì shénme shíhou qù Běijīng de? 小明是什么时候去北京的？ | Did Xiaoming go to Beijing yesterday? (last year? etc.) Xiǎomíng shì zuótiān qù Běijīng de ma? 小明是昨天去北京的吗？
With whom did Xiaoming go to Beijing? Xiǎomíng shì gēn shéi qù Běijīng de? 小明是跟谁去北京的？ | Did Xiaoming go to Beijing alone? (with his mom? etc.) Xiǎomíng shì yí gè rén qù Běijīng de ma? 小明是一个人去北京的吗？
How did Xiaoming go to Beijing? Xiǎomíng shì zěnme qù Běijīng de? 小明是怎么去北京的？ | Did Xiaoming fly to Beijing? (go by bus? /train? etc.) Xiǎomíng shì zuò fēijī qù Běijīng de ma? 小明是坐飞机去北京的吗？

The answers to these questions would be:

Answers

He went to Beijing yesterday.
Tā shì zuótiān qù Běijīng de.
他是昨天去北京的。

He went to Beijing with his father.
Tā shì gēn tā fùqin qù Běijīng de.
他是跟他父亲去北京的。

He drove to Beijing.
Tā shì kāi chē qù Běijīng de.
他是开车去北京的。

The 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction does not deal with the completion, duration and frequency of an action or the quantity of the object. It focuses on the circumstances around the fact, not on the fact itself.

II. The structure of the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction

The 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction is formed by placing shì 是 right before the word or phrase the speaker intends to emphasize and placing de 的 either at the end of the sentence or before the object depending on the situation.

The placement of shì 是

shì 是 is placed right before the element indicating the information to be clarified. shì 是 takes a word or phrase which provides any of the following information about the action: time, place, manner, agent or target. The following examples show how different placements of shì 是 in the same sentence change its focus.

Focusing on Time

Wǒ shì zuótiān gēn tā kāi chē qù Shànghǎi de.
我是昨天跟他开车去上海的。
I drove to Shanghai with him yesterday. It was yesterday that I drove to Shanghai with him.

Focusing on Company

Wǒ zuótiān shì gēn tā kāi chē qù Shànghǎi de.
我昨天是跟他开车去上海的。
I drove to Shanghai with him yesterday. It was with him that I drove to Shanghai yesterday.

Focusing on Conveyance

Wǒ zuótiān gēn tā shì kāi chē qù Shànghǎi de.
我昨天跟他是开车去上海的。
I drove to Shanghai with him yesterday.

The placement of de 的

If the verb does not take an object, place de 的 at the end of the sentence.

A 1.

Tā shì zuótiān zǒu de
他是昨天走的。
He left yesterday. It was yesterday that he left.

A 2.

Wǒ shì zuò huǒchē huílái de.
我是坐火车回来的。
I came back by train. It was by train that I came back.

The verb huí 回 takes a directional complement lái 来.

If the verb takes an object and the object is a personal pronoun, place de 的 at the end of the sentence.

B 1.

Wǒ shì zài Fǎguó rènshi tā de.
我是在法国认识她的。
I met her in France. It was in France that I met her.

B 2.

Tā shì zài huí shàng pīpíng wǒ de.
他是在会上批评我的。
He criticized me in the meeting. It was in the meeting that he criticized me.

If the verb takes an object, which is a noun denoting place, put de 的either before the object or at the end of the sentence.

C 1.

Wǒ shì zuò huǒchē lái Běijīng de.
我是坐火车来北京的。
I came to Beijing by train. It was by train that I came to Beijing.

C 2.

Wǒ shì zuò huǒchē lái de Běijīng.
我是坐火车来的北京。
I came to Beijing by train. It was by train that I came to Beijing.

If the verb takes a noun as the object and the noun does not denote place, put de 的 before the object.

D 1.

Wǒ shì zài diànyǐngyuàn qiántou mài de piào.
我是在电影院前头卖的票。
I sold the ticket in front of the cinema. It was in front of the cinema that I sold the ticket.

D 2.

Tā shì gēn wǒ yíkuàir kàn de diànyǐng.
他是跟我一块儿看的电影。
He saw the movie with me. It was with me that he saw the movie.

Note that de may not be placed after the object in this case because it may change the meaning of the sentence. Compare Sentence D 3 with D 1.

D 3.

Wǒ shì zài diànyǐngyuàn qiántou mài piào de.
我是在电影院前头卖票的。
I sell tickets in front of the cinema. I am a ticket-seller in front of the cinema.

Some 'verb+object ' combos can be nominalized by attaching de to form informal names of professions, such as màiyú de 卖鱼的 fish-seller, chànggē de 唱歌的 singer, zhàoxiàng de 照相的 photographer, jiāoshū de 教书的 teacher, etc.

If the verb takes a directional complement and an object, de 的 is placed at the end of the sentence.

E 1.

Wáng tàitai shì qiánnián bāndào Shànghǎi qù de
王太太是前年搬到上海去的。
It was the year before last that Mrs. Wang moved to Shanghai.

E 2.

Tā shì zuótiān dǎlái diànhuà de
他是昨天打来电话的。
He called yesterday. It was yesterday that he called. (Call was made to the speaker.)

Note that in the following sentence the de 的 is placed before the object, which does not denote a place. Such a placement breaks the rule and has changed the element between shì 是 and de 的 into an attribute modifying the object. As a result the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Compare the following sentences.

E 3.

Tā shì zuótiān mǎilái māo de.
他是昨天买来猫的。
It was yesterday that he bought the cat.

E 3.

Tā shì zuótiān mǎilái de māo.
他是昨天买来的猫。
He is the cat bought yesterday.

Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

Focusing on time (when the action took place)

Focusing on place (where the action took place)

Focusing on manner (in what manner the action took place)

Focusing on company

Focusing on conveyance

Focusing on tool

Focusing on demeanor

Focusing on the agent of the action (who executed the action)

Focusing on the target of the action (for/to whom the action was executed)

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

1. Focusing on time

Wáng Xiānsheng shì shénme shíhou huí Běijīng de?
王先生是什么时候回北京的？
When did Mr. Wang return to Beijing?

Wáng Xiānsheng shì qùnián huí Běijīng de.
王先生是去年回北京的。
Mr. Wang returned to Beijing last year. It was last year that Mr. Wang returned to Beijing.

Sentence 1.2 could also be an answer to the following questions.

Wáng Xiānsheng shì něi nián huí Běijīng de?
王先生是哪年回北京的？
In which year did Mr. Wang return to Beijing?

Wáng Xiānsheng shì qùnián huí Běijīng de ma?
王先生是去年回北京的吗？
Was it last year that Mr. Wang returned to Beijing?

Wáng Xiānsheng shì bú shì qùnián huí Běijīng de?
王先生是不是去年回北京的？
Was it last year that Mr. Wang returned to Beijing?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

2. Focusing on place

Nǐ shì zài nǎr xué de Yīngyǔ?
你是在哪儿学的英语？
Where did you study English?

Wǒ shì zài Yīngguó xué de Yīngyǔ.
我是在英国学的英语。
I studied English in England. It was in England that I studied English.

Sentence 2.2 could also be an answer to the following questions:

Nǐ shì zài shénme dìfang xué de Yīngyǔ?
你是在什么地方学的英语？
Where did you study English?

Nǐ shì zài něi guó xué de Yīngyǔ?
你是在哪国学的英语？
In which country did you study English?

Nǐ shì zài Yīngguó xué de Yīngyǔ ma?
你是在英国学的英语吗？
Was it in England that you studied English?

Nǐ shì bú shì zài Yīngguó xué de Yīngyǔ?
你是不是在英国学的英语？
Was it in England that you studied English?

Focusing on manner (in what manner the action took place)

3.1 Focusing on company

3.2 Focusing on conveyance

3.3 Focusing on tool

3.4 Focusing on demeanor

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

3. Focusing on manner

3.1 Company

Tā shì gēn shéi qù de?
他是跟谁去的？
With whom did he go?

Tā shì gēn tā mèimei qù de.
他是跟他妹妹去的。
He went with his younger sister. It was with his younger sister that he went.

Sentence 3.1.2 could also be an answer to the following questions.

Tā shì gēn tā mèimei qù de ma?
他是跟他妹妹去的吗？
Was it with his younger sister that he went?

Tā shì bú shì gēn tā mèimei qù de?
他是不是跟他妹妹去的?
Was it with his younger sister that he went?

Tā shì bú shì zìjǐ qù de?
他是不是自己去的?
Did he go alone?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

3. Focusing on manner

3.2 Conveyance

Jīntiān Zhāng Huá shì zénme lái xuéxiào de
今天张华是怎么来学校的？
How did Hua Zhang come to school today?

Jīntiān tā shì zǒulù lái xuéxiào de.
今天他是走路来学校的。
He came to school on foot today.

Sentence 3.2.2 could also be an answer to the following questions.

Jīntiān tā shì zǒulù lái xuéxiào de ma?
今天他是走路来学校的吗？
Was it on foot that he came to school today?

Jīntiān tā shì bú shì zǒulù lái xuéxiào de
今天他是不是走路来学校的？
Was it on foot that he came to school today?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

3. Focusing on manner

3.3 Instrument

Nǐ shì zěnme xiě de xìn?
你是怎么写的信？
How did you write the letter?

Wǒ shì yòng máobǐ xiě de xìn.
我是用毛笔写的信。
I wrote the letter with a writing brush. It was with a writing brush that I wrote the letter.

Sentence 3.3.2 could also be an answer to the following questions.

Nǐ shì yòng shénme xiě de xìn?
你是用什么写的信？
With what did you write the letter?

Nǐ shì yòng máobǐ xiě de xìn ma?
你是用毛笔写的信吗？
Did you write the letter with a writing brush? Was it with a writing brush that you wrote the letter?

Nǐ shì bú shì yòng máobǐ xiě de xìn?
你是不是用毛笔写的信？
Did you write the letter with a writing brush? Was it with a writing brush that you wrote the letter?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

3. Focusing on manner

3.4 Demeanor

Tā qù nàr tā fùmǔ zěnme bù zhīdào?
他去那儿他父母怎么不知道？
How come his parents didn't know that he went there?

Tā shì tōutōu qù de.
他是偷偷去的。
He went secretly.

Sentence 3.4.1B could also be an answer to the following questions.

Tā shì tōutōu qù de ma?
他是偷偷去的吗？
Did he go secretly?

Tā shì bú shì tōutōu qù de?
他是不是偷偷去的？
Did he go secretly?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

4. Focusing on the agent of the action

4.1

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng shì shéi gàosù nǐ de?
这件事情是谁告诉你的？
Who told you this?

If the verb has a direct object, it is often displaced to the beginning of the sentence.

4.2

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng shì Wáng Huá gàosù wǒ de.
这件事情是王华告诉我的。
Hua Wang told me about it. It was Hua Wang who told me about it.

Sentence 4.2 could also be an answer to the following questions.

4.3

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng shì tā gàosù nǐ de ma?
这件事情是他告诉你的吗？
Did HE tell you about this matter? Was it he who told you about this matter？

4.4

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng shì bú shì tā gàosù nǐ de?
这件事情是不是他告诉你的？
Did HE tell you about this matter? Was it he who told you about this matter？

4.5

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng nǐ shì zěnme zhīdào de (focus on manner)
这件事情你是怎么知道的？
How did you know about this matter?

III. Circumstantial elements that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction highlights.

5. Focusing on the target of the action (for whom the action was done or to whom the action was directed)

The 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction can be used to point out the target of the action. It shows for whom the action was done or to whom the action is directed. The target is usually the beneficiary of the action or receiver of the object. When focusing on the target of the action, it is the object in the coverb phrase that is emphasized. shì 是 is placed right before the coverb phrase. The object of the predicate verb is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Zhèi fú huà tā shì wèi nǐ huà de.
这幅画他是为你画的。
It was for you that he painted this painting.

Nà yì qiāng tā shì cháo wǒ dǎ de.
那一枪他是朝我打的。
It was at me that the gunshot was fired.

Zhèi píng jiǔ wǒ shì tì biérén mǎi de.
这瓶酒我是替别人买的。
It was for other people that I bought this wine.

Zhèi wǎn tāng wǒ shì gěi nǐ zuò de.
这碗汤我是给你做的。
I made the soup for you. It was for you that I made the soup.

Sentence 5.4 could also be an answer to the following questions.

Zhèi wǎn tāng nǐ shì gěi shéi zuò de?
这碗汤你是给谁做的？
For whom did you make the soup?

Zhèi wǎn táng nǐ shì gěi wǒ zuò de ma?
这碗汤你是给我做的吗？
Did you make the soup for me?

Zhèi wǎn tāng nǐ shì bú shì gěi wǒ zuò de?
这碗汤你是不是给我做的？
Did you make the soup for me?

Nǐ zěnme bù hē diǎnr tāng?
你怎么不喝点儿汤？
Why aren't you having some soup?

IV. The negative form of the 'shì 是 ... de的 ' construction

The negative form uses bù不, which is placed before shì 是.

Wǒ bú shì zài Měiguó xué de Yīngwén, wǒ shì zài Yīngguó xué de.
我不是在美国学的英文，我是在英国学的。
It was not in America that I studied English, it was in England.

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng bú shì tā gàosù wǒ de.
这件事情不是他告诉我的。
It was not he who told me about it.

V. The placement of adverbs

Adverbs that modify the emphasized adverbial or the entire situation are placed before shì 是. Adverbs modifying the predicate verb are placed before the verb.

Wǒ yě shì zài Měiguó xué de Yīngwén.
我也是在美国学的英文。
I, too, studied English in America.

Wǒ shì zài Měiguó xué de Yīngwén, yě shì zài Měiguó xué de Xībānyáwén.
我是在美国学的英文，也是在美国学的西班牙文。
It was in America that I studied English and it was also in America that I studied Spanish.

Wǒmen dōu shì zài Měiguó xué de Yīngwén.
我们都是在美国学的英文。
We all studied English in America.

Jīntiān tā yòu shì jiǔ diǎn bàn huílái de.
今天他又是九点半回来的。
He came back at 9:30 again tonight. It was again 9:30 that he came back tonight.

Jīntiān tā shì jiǔ diǎn bàn cái qǐchuáng de.
今天他是九点半才起床的。
Today he finally got up at 9:30. Today it was at 9:30 that he finally got up.

VI. Stress

Stress should fall on the word or phrase to be emphasized. Listen to the following sentences.

Wáng Xiānsheng shì qùnián huí Běijīng de.
王先生是去年回北京的。
Mr. Wang returned to Beijing last year. It was last year that Mr. Wang returned to Beijing.

Jīntiān tā shì bú shì zǒulù lái xuéxiào de?
今天他是不是走路来学校的？
Was it on foot that he came to school today?

Zhèi jiàn shìqíng shì lǎoshī gàosù wǒ de.
这件事情是老师告诉我的。
The teacher told me about it. It was the teacher who told me about it.

VII. The omission of shì 是

shì 是 can be omitted in most cases. However, it may not be omitted under any one of the following conditions.

when the subject is a demonstrative pronoun such as zhè 这or nà 那;

when the sentence is negative;

when the emphasis is on a situation which has caused a fact.

shì 是 omitted.

Wǒ (shì) zuò huǒchē lái de.
我坐火车来的。
I came by train. It was by train that I came.

shì 是 may not be omitted in a negative sentence:

Wǒ bú shì zài Shànghǎi dǎ de diànhuà.
我不是在上海打的电话。
It was not in Shanghai that I called. I did not call in Shanghai.

shì 是 may not be omitted if the subject is a demonstrative pronoun such as:

Zhè shì zài Běijīng mǎi de.
这是在北京买的。
This was bought in Beijing. It was in Beijing that this was bought.

shì 是 may not be omitted if the emphasis is on a situation which has caused a fact.

Tā rén hěn hēi, shì shài de.
他人很黑，是晒的。
He is dark and that 's because of his exposure to the sun.

VIII. Other question forms of 'shì 是 ... de的 ' construction

Alternate questions use the following pattern:

Subject + shì ... ... de hái shì ... ... de?
Subject + 是 ... ... 的 还是 ... ... 的?

Nǐ shì zǒu lù lái de háishì zuò chē lái de.
你是走路来的还是坐车来的？
Did you come on foot or by bus?

Subject + shì ... ... Verb de Object hái shì ... ... Verb de Object?
Subject + 是 ... ... Verb 的 Object 还是 ... ... Verb 的 Object?

Nǐ shì zài Měiguó xué de Yīngwén háishì zài Yīngguó xué de Yīngwén.
你是在美国学的英文还是在英国学的英文？
Was it in America or England where you studied English?

Ba 吧 questions: Put ba 吧 at the end of the sentence.

Nǐmen shì zài Běijīng rènshi de ba?
你们是在北京认识的吧？
You met in Beijing, did you not?

IX. 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction and sentences with le 了

Because the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction is associated with completed actions and because English uses the past tense to report things that have taken place, students often make errors by focusing on completion when circumstantial elements about an action actually demand the attention. It is important to remember that the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction does not deal with the completion, duration or frequency of an action or with the quantity of the object. It focuses on when, where and how an action took place. It is used to seek or provide information about the time, place, company, conveyance, manner, tools, purpose, agent and recipient of the action. The following dialogue shows when to use le 了 and when to use the 'shì 是 ... de 的 ' construction.

Nǐ mǎi shū le ma? (Focus: accomplished fact)
你买书了吗？
Have you bought the books yet?

Mǎi le. (Focus: accomplished fact)
买了。
Yes, I have.

(Shì) shénme shíhou mǎi de (Focus: time)
(是) 什么时候买的？
When did you buy them?

(Shì) zuótiān mǎi de. (Focus: time)
(是) 昨天买的。
I bought them yesterday.

(Shì) zài nǎr mǎi de (Focus: place)
(是) 在哪儿买的？
Where did you buy them?

(Shì) zài Xīnhuá shūdiàn mǎi de (Focus: place)
(是) 在新华书店买的。
I bought them at the Xinhua Bookstore.

Xīnhuá shūdiàn hěn yuǎn, nǐ shì zěnme qù de (Focus: conveyance)
新华书店很远，你是怎么去的？
Xinhua Bookstore is far, how did you go there?

(Shì) zuò chē qù de (Focus: conveyance)
(是) 坐车去的。
I went by bus.

Zuò-le duō cháng shíjiān? (Focus: the duration of the action)
坐了多长时间？
How long was the ride?

Zuò-le yí ge zhōngtóu de chē. (Focus: the duration of the action)
坐了一个钟头的车.
The ride was an hour long.

Nǐ (Shì) yí gè rén qù de ma? (Focus: company)
你(是) 一个人去的吗？
Did you go there alone?

Bú shì (yí gè rén qù de). (Focus: company)
不是(一个人去的)。
No, I didn't go there alone.

(Shì) gēn shéi qù de (Focus: company)
(是)跟谁去的？
With whom did you go there?

(Shì) gēn Wáng Tóng qù de. (Focus: company)
(是) 跟王同去的。
I went with Tong Wang.

Tā yě mǎi shū le ma? (Focus: accomplished fact)
他也买书了吗？
Did he buy books, too?

Tā méi mǎi. (Focus: accomplished fact)
他没买。
No, he didn't.

Nǐ mǎi-le jǐ běn (Focus: quantity of the object)
你买了几本？
How many did you buy?

Wǒ mǎi-le wǔ běn (Focus: quantity of the object)
我买了五本。
I bought five.

Directional Complements

Simple directional complement

What is the simple directional complement?

Verbs of motion that take a simple directional complement

Verbs that indicate the transporting of objects or people

The placement of the simple directional complement, the object and le 了

Compound directional complement

What is the compound directional complement?

The placement of the object and modal particle le 了in the sentence

Extended meaning of some directional complements

–qǐlai起来

–xiàqu下去

–chūlai出来

–shànglai上来

–shàng上

–xià下

Simple Directional Complements

What is the simple directional complement?

Verbs of motion that take a simple directional complement

Verbs that indicate the transporting of objects or people

The placement of the simple directional complement, the object and le 了

I. Simple Directional Complement

A. What is the simple directional complement?

The verb lái 来 (come) or qù 去 (go) used after another verb as a complement to show the direction of an action is called the simple directional complement.

B. Verbs of motion taking a simple directional complement

Verbs of motion such as shàng 上, xià 下, jìn 进, chū 出, huí 回, guò 过, and qǐ 起 frequently take lái 来 and qù 去 as complements. Table 1 below shows lái 来 and qù 去 suffixed to verbs of motion to show whether the movement is toward the speaker or away from the speaker. In English, the direction of an action is usually indicated by the verbs 'come ' and 'go ', which are represented respectively by the verbs 'lái 来 ' and ‘qù 去 ' in Chinese. Note that as complements lái and qù have neutral tone when they are attached to verbs except for the verb dào 到.

Table 1. Simple Directional Complements

verbs of motion simple directional complements | shàng 上 to ascend | xià 下 to descend | jìn 进 to enter | chū 出 to exit | huí 回 to return | guó 过 to cross | qǐ 起 to rise | dào 到 to reach

lái
来
action proceeding
toward the speaker
shànglai
上来
come up
xiàlai
下来
come down
jìnlai
进来
come in(to)
chūlai
出来
come out
huílai
回来
come back
guòlai
过来
come over
qǐlai
起来
get up
dào ...lái
到 ...来
come to

qù
去
action moving away
from where the speaker is
shàngqu
上去
go up
xiàqu
下去
go down
jìnqu
进去
go in(to)
chūqu
出去
go out
huíqu
回去
go back
guòqu
过去
go over
N./A.
dào ...qù
到 ...去
go to

The examples below show how these compounds are used in sentences:

shànglai 上来 (to come up)

Note: The speaker is upstairs. The listener is downstairs.

Wǒ zài lóushàng, qǐng nǐ shànglai.
我在楼上，请你上来。
I 'm upstairs. Please come up.

shàngqu 上去 (to go up)

Quxiang1d1 Note: Both the speaker and the listener are at the foot of the hill.

Tīngshuō shān-shang fēngjǐng hěn měi. Nǐ xiǎng bù xiǎng shàngqukàn kan.
听说山上风景很美。你想不想上去看看？
I heard that the view on the top of the mountain was beautiful. Would you like to go up to take a look?

xiàlai 下来 (to come down)

Note: The speaker and the listener are downstairs. The speaker tells the listener that he is going upstairs.

Tā zài lóushàng. Wǒ qù jiào tā xiàlai.
他在楼上。我去叫他下来。
He's upstairs. I 'll go to tell him to come down.

xiàqu 下去 (to go down)

Note: The speaker and the listener are upstairs. The speaker asks the listener to go downstairs.

Lóuxià yǒu rén jiào mén. Nǐ xiàqu kànkan shì shéi.
楼下有人叫门。你下去看看是谁。
Someone is knocking on the door. Go down to see who it is.

jìnlai 进 来 (to come in)

Note: The speaker is inside the house asking the listener to come inside.

Wàitou nàme lěng, nǐ kuài jìnlai ba.
外头那么冷，你快进来吧。
it's so cold outside. Quickly come in.

jìnqu 进去 (to go in)

Note: Both the speaker and the listener are outside the house.

Tài lěng le. Wǒmen kuài jìnqu ba.
太冷了，我们快进去吧。
it's too cold. Let 's quickly go in.

chūlai 出来 (to come out)

Note: The speaker is outside the house. The listener is inside.

Fángzi-li tài rè le. Nǐ kuài chūlai ba.
房子里太热了，你快出来吧。
it's too hot in the house. Quickly come out. 　

chūqu 出去 (to go out)

Note: The speaker and the listener are inside the house.

Tiānqi zhēn hǎo! Wǒmen chūqu zǒu zou ba.
天气真好！我们出去走走吧。
The weather is really nice! Let 's go out and take a walk.

huílai 回来 (to come back)

Note: The speaker and the listener are at the same place. The speaker is going to take a short trip. He tells the listener he 'll be back in the evening the next day.

Wǒ míngtiān wǎnshang huílai.
我明天晚上回来。
I 'm coming back tomorrow.

huíqu 回去 (to go back)

Note: The speaker and the listener are in Shanghai. The speaker tells the listener that he is returning to Beijing the next day.

Wǒ míngtiān huíqu.
我明天回去。
I 'm going back tomorrow.

guòlai 过来 (to come over)

Note: The speaker asks the listener to come over to where he is.

Guòlai shì shi zhèi jiàn máoyī.
过来试试这件毛衣。
Come over here and try this sweater on.

guòqu 过去 (to go over)

Note: The speaker and the listener are not at the lake.

Tīngshuō nèibiān yǒu yí gè xiǎo hú. Wǒmen guòqu kànkan.
听说那边有一个小湖，我们过去看看。
I heard there's a small lake over there. Let 's go over there to take a look.

qǐlai 起来 (to rise, to get up)

Note: The speaker asks the listener to get out of bed.

Yǐjīng bā diǎn le. Kuài qǐlai ba.
已经八点了。快起来吧。
it's already eight o 'clock. Get up quickly.

dào + place + lái 到 ...... 来 (to come to)

Note: The speaker is in Beijing. 　

Huānyíng nǐ dào Běijīng lái.
欢迎你到北京来。
Welcome (you) to Beijing.

dào + place + qù 到 ...... 去 (to go to)

Note: The speaker is not in France.

Wǒ hěn xiǎng dào Fǎguó qù.
我很想到法国去。
I very much want to go to France.

C. Verbs indicating the transporting of objects or people.

Besides verbs of motion, verbs indicating moving objects from one place to another also take directional complements, such as ná 拿 (to take), dài 带 (take...along; bring; bear) and jì 寄 (to send by mail). The directional complement lái 来 and qù 去 keep their original tone.

ná +lái 拿来 (to take to/to bring over to where the speaker is)

Jīntiān Lǎo Lǐ gěi wǒ nálái–le yì píng Fǎguó jiǔ.
今天老李给我拿来了一瓶法国酒。
Today Old Li brought me a bottle of French wine. Note: The speaker is now at the place where Old Li came with the wine.

dài + qù 带去

Zhèi bāo chá qǐng nǐ gěi Xiǎo Zhāng dàiqù.
这包茶请你给小张带去。
Please take this package of tea to Young Zhang.

Note: The speaker and the listener are at Place A. The listener is going to Place B. The speaker wants the listener to take the tea to Young Zhang who is at Place B.

sòng + lái 送来

Jīntiān shàngwǔ Lǐ Xiānsheng gěi wǒmen sònglái–le liǎng qiān kuài qián.
今天上午李先生给我们送来了两千块钱。
This morning Mr. Li came here and gave us $2,000 dollars.

Note: The speaker is at the place where Mr. Li came to give the money.

jì + qù 寄去

Shàng gè yuè wǒ gěi tā jìqù–le liǎng bǎi kuài qián.

上个月我给他寄去了两百块钱。

Last month I sent him $200 dollars.

Note: The speaker is at Place A while the receiver is at Place B.

bān + lái 搬来

Sān lóu bānlái–le yì jiā Fǎguó rén.
三楼搬来了一家法国人。
A French family has moved in on the third floor.

Note: The speaker is in the building where the French family has moved in.

D. The placement of the simple directional complement, the object and le 了.

1. If the verb does not take an object and the action has already been executed, the modal particle le 了 indicating accomplished fact is used at the end of the sentence.

Tā yǐjīng huíqu le.
他已经回去了。
He has already gone back.

Xiǎo Wáng jìnlai le ma?
小王进来了吗？
Has Young Wang come in yet?

Háizi-men dōu qǐlai le.
孩子们都起来了。
The children have all gotten up/out of bed.

2. If the object refers to a place, it is usually placed between the verb and the simple directional complement. In such a sentence, if the action has already taken place, the modal particle le 了 is used to indicate that it is an accomplished fact. Le 了 is placed at the end of the sentence.

verb + place + simple directional complement + (le)

Tā huí lǎojiā qu le.
他回老家去了。
He has returned to his hometown.

Xiǎo Wáng bú zài jiā. Tā jìnchéng qu le.
小王不在家。他进城去了。
Young Wang is not home. He is gone to the city.

Qǐng nǐ dào lóushàng lái.
请你到楼上来。
Please come upstairs.

3. If the object is not a place, it is usually placed after the complement. When the aspect particle –le 了 occurs in this kind of sentence, it is usually placed immediately after the complement.

verb + simple directional complement + (-le 了) + (numerical measure word or other qualifier) + object

Tā ná lái-le liǎng zhāng diànyǐng piào.
他拿来了两张电影票。
He came and gave us two movie tickets.

Qǐng gěi tā dài qù jǐ běn xiǎoshuō.
请给他带去几本小说。
Please bring a few novels over to him.

Compound Directional Complements

What is the compound directional complement?

The placement of the object and modal particle le 了in the sentence

II. Compound directional complements

A. What is the compound directional complement?

When the combination of a verb of motion and lái 来 or qù 去 (see Table 2.) is suffixed to a verb to show the direction of the movement, it is called the compound directional complement. Compound directional complements are used in the same way as simple directional complements.

Table 2. Compound Directional Complements

Verb + | Compound directional complements
Verbs that indicate moving or transporting objects, such as bān 搬 (to move), ná 拿 (to take or bring), or sòng 送 (to deliver, carry or escort), and body movements, such as zǒu 走 (to walk) or pǎo 跑 (to run) frequently take compound directional complements. | shànglai 上来 come up | xiàlai 下来 come down | jìnlai 进来 come in(to) | chūlai 出来 come out | huílai 回来 come back | guòlai 过来 come over | qǐlai 起来 get up | dào ... lái 到 ... 来 come to
shàngqu 上去 go up | xiàqu 下去 go down | jìnqu 进去 go in(to) | chūqu 出去 go out | huíqu 回去 go back | guòqu 过去 go over | N./A. | dào ... qù 到 ... 去 go to

The examples below show how verbs take compound directional complements:

Wǒ jiā mǎi-le yì suǒ xīn fángzi, kěshì wǒmen hái méiyǒu bānjìnqu.
我家买了一所新房子，可是我们还没有搬进去。
My family bought a new house, but we have not moved in yet.

Tā ná chūlai yì běn shū.
他拿出来一本书。
He took out a book.

Qǐng nǐ zǒu guòqu kàn kàn nà shì shénme dōngxi.
请你走过去看看那是什么东西。
Please go over there to see what it is.

Tā pǎo guòlai bāng wǒ ná xíngli.
他跑过来帮我拿行李。
He ran over to me to help me carry the luggage.

Zuótiān Xiǎo Lǐ mǎi huílai yì tái diànshì.
昨天小李买回来一台电视。
Yesterday Young Li bought a TV set and brought it back with him.

B. The placement of the object and modal particle le 了 in the sentence

If the verb takes an object which refers to a place, the object is inserted into the compound complement. In such a sentence, if the action has already taken place, the modal particle le 了 is used to indicate that it is an accomplished fact. le 了 is placed at the end of the sentence.

Lǐ jiā bān huí  Běijīng qu le.
李家搬回北京去了。
The Li family has moved back to Beijing.

Liǎng diǎnzhōng yí dào, xuéshēng-men jiù dōu pǎo jìn jiàoshì lái le.
两点钟一到，学生们就都跑进教室来了。
As soon as it strikes two o 'clock, the students all ran into the classroom.

If the object refers to something other than a place and it isa generic or indefinite object, it is usually placed after the compound directional complement. The aspect particle –le 了 and the modal particle le 了 are not commonly used in this kind of sentences.

Tā náchūlaièrshí kuài qián.
他拿出来二十块钱。
He took out $20 dollars.

Tāmen bānjìnquyí gè dà xiāngzi.
他们搬进去一个大箱子。
They moved a big crate inside.

If the object refers to something other than a place and the object has been previously mentioned or is something both the speaker and the listener know, thebǎ把construction is most commonly used to displace the object to the pre-verbal position and comment on what has happened to the object. If the action is an accomplished fact, the modal particle le 了 should be used and placed at the end of the sentence.

Tā bǎnèièrshí kuài qiánnáchūlaile.
他把那二十块钱拿出来了。
He took out the $20 dollars.

Tāmen bǎnèi gèdà xiāngzibānjìnqule.
他们把那个大箱子搬进去了。
They moved the big crate inside.

Extended meaning of some directional complements

–qǐlai起来

–xiàqu下去

–chūlai出来

–shànglai上来

–shàng上

–xià下

III. Extended meaning of some directional complements

Directional complements often work with verbs indicating physical movement. Typically, they are related to moving objects from one place to another or they indicate to what place the subject is moving or has moved. This is why these verbs often indicate moving something by hand or the subject 's own movement to a new place, such as bān 搬 (to move), ná 拿 (to take), fàng 放 (to put), dài 带 (to bring), tái 抬 (to lift), tuī 推 (to push), lā 拉 (to pull), zǒu 走 (to walk), pǎo 跑 (to run), and so on. When accompanied by directional complements, these verbs show the direction of the movement. However, many directional complements are stretched in meaning to make idiomatic expressions, so much so that when used with certain verbs they no longer indicate direction as in their original sense. For example, the complement chūlai 出来 (out), when used with the verb ná 拿 (to take) to form the combo 'náchūlai 拿出来 (to take out) ', indicates the direction of the movement; but when used with the verb kàn 看 (to look) to form the combo ‘kànchūlai 看出来 (to detect by looking) ', it no longer indicates direction . The way the complement ‘chūlai 出来 (out) ' is stretched to 'detect ' is perhaps based on the rationale that detection is the act of picking out something hidden. The following are examples of some directional complements used in their extended meanings.

–qilai 起来

indicating the beginning and continuation of an action or a state.

Tiānqi rèqǐlaile.
天气热起来了。
The weather is getting hotter.

Xiànzài xué Zhōngwén de xuésheng duōqǐlaile.
现在学中文的学生多起来了。
(Now students who study Chinese are becoming more numerous.)

indicating the result of recollection.

Wǒ xiǎngqǐlaile, tā jiào Wáng Dàshān, duì bú duì?
我想起来了，他叫王大山，对不对？
Now I remember. His name is Dashan Wang, right?

indicating concentration from a scattered state.

Zhuōzishang de shū dōu shōuqǐlaile ma?
桌子上的书都收起来了吗？
Have the books on the desk been put away yet?

Rén zhǐyǒu tuánjiéqǐlai, zǔzhīqǐlai, cái kěyi zuò dàshì.
人只有团结起来，组织起来，才可以做大事。
Only when people are united and organized, can they do greater things.

B. –xiaqu 下去, indicating continuation of an action in the future.

Ràng tā shuōxiàqu.
让他说下去。
Let him go on (talking).

Yàoshì zhèyàng liànxiàqu, nǐ huì xué de hěn hǎo.
要是这样练下去，你会学得很好。
If you keep practicing like this, you will study well.

C. –chulai 出来

indicating identification, realization or detection of something through the action.

Zhèlǐ yǒu yí ge cuò zì, nǐ kànchūlaile ma?
这里有一个错字，你看出来了吗？
There is a wrong character. Can you see it (tell which one it is)?

Tā-de Hànyǔ zhēn hǎo! Zuótiān tā gěi wǒ dǎ diànhuà de shíhòu, wǒ wánquán méi tīngchūlaitā shì gè wàiguó rén!
他的汉语真好！昨天他给我打电话的时候，我完全没听出来他是个外国人！
His Chinese is really good! When he called me yesterday, I couldn't tell (from listening) that he was a foreigner at all.

Wǒmen yǐjīng èrshí nián méi jiàn le. Bù zhīdào tā hái néng bù néng rènchūwǒlai.
我们已经二十年没见了。不知道他还能不能认出我来。
We haven't seen each other for 20 years. I don't know if he could still recognize me.

indicating having the knowledge to do something.

Lǎoshī wèn wǒ dè wèntí wǒ dōu méi huídáchūlai.
老师问我的问题我都没回答出来。
I failed to answer any of the teacher 's questions.

D. –shànglai 上来, indicating having the knowledge to do something.

Lǎoshī wèn wǒ dè wèntí wǒ dōu méi huídáshànglai.
老师问我的问题我都没回答上来。
I failed to answer any of the teacher 's questions. Note: 4.2.1 and 3.2.1 are the same in meaning. They are interchangeable.

E. –shang 上

indicating attachment.

Xiàyǔ le. Kuài guānshangchuānghu.
下雨了，快关上窗户！
it's raining. Quickly close the windows!

Tiānqi zhème lěng, kuài chuānshangmáoyī.
天气这么冷，快穿上毛衣。
The weather is so cold. Quickly put on a sweater.

indicating attaining purpose through hardship.

Tā nǔlì gōngzuò-le liǎng nián, zhōngyú mǎishang-le yí liàng xīn chē.
他努力工作了两年，终于买上了一辆新车。
He worked hard for two years and at last bought a new car.

Zhèixiē qióng háizi zhōngyú chīshang-le fàn, chuānshang-le xīn yīfu.
这些穷孩子终于吃上了饭、穿上了新衣服。
These impoverished children finally have got food to eat and new clothes to wear.

indicating passing an entrance exam to a school.

Wǒ dìdi kǎoshangdàxué le.
我弟弟考上大学了。
My younger brother passed the entrance exam to college.

F.–xia下, indicating having space to accommodate someone or something.

Zhèi ge jiàoshì néng zuòxiaèrshí ge rén ma?
这个教室能坐下二十个人吗？
Can this classroom seat twenty people?

Wǒ jiā néng zhùxiashí ge rén.
我家能住下十个人。
My house can accomodate ten people.

The Complement Of Degree

What is the complement of degree?

The structure of the complement of degree

The negative forms

The question forms

When to use the complement of degree?

Complement of degree vs. potential complement

I. What is the complement of degree?

“A complement refers to a grammatical unit, generally made up of a verbal or an adjectival expression, that appears after the main verb in a sentence and enhances its meaning (Hung-nin Samuel. Cheung 1994: 177).” There are many different complements such as the complement of degree, the complement of result, the directional complement, the potential complement and so on. This chapter focuses on the complement of degree. Generally speaking, the complement of degree is a grammatical unit that describes the main verb of the sentence. Specifically, the complement of degree is an assessment of an action or a description of the consequential state of an action. It may also be a description of the degree of a state.

Assessment of an action

Tā shuō de hěn qīngchǔ.
他说得很清楚。
He speaks very clearly.

Description of the consequential state of an action

Tā shuō de wǒ gèng hútu le.
他说得我更糊涂了。
He spoke only to make me even more confused.

Description of the degree of a state

Tā lèi de dǎoxià le.
他累得倒下了。
He was so tired that he fell.

II. The Structures of the Complement of Degree

The complement of degree is headed by a structural particle, de 得. De 得 and the complement are placed right after the main verb. The complement can be a stative verb modified by hěn 很 or other adverbs; it can also be a verbal expression, idiomatic expression or clause. The structure of a sentence with a complement of degree depends on the main verb and whether the verb takes an object or not.

When the main verb is an action verb or VV-compound (verb + verb compound, such as gōngzuò 工作, xiūxi 休息, and xuéxí 学习) and it does not take an object, the verb and its complement follow the structure below.

verb + de 得 + complement (hěn 很/ adverb + stative verb, or verbal / idiomatic expression, or clause)

action verb + de + hěn 很 + stative verb

Tā shuō de hěn hǎo.
他说得很好。
He speaks well.

Note that hěn 很 should be used unless a comparison is to be made. An adverb modifying the stative verb can replace hěn 很 to further emphasize the stative verb.

action verb + de 得 + adverb + stative verb

Tā shuō de fēicháng hǎo.
他说得非常好。
He speaks very well.

Tā shuō de tèbié hǎo.
他说得特别好。
He speaks unusually well.

VV-verb +de得+hěn很+ stative verb

Tā gōngzuò de hěn hǎo
他工作得很好。
He works well.

action verb + de 得 + adverb + stative verb

Tā chī de tài duōle, suǒyǐ hěn pàng.
他吃得太多了，所以很胖。
He eats too much, so he's fat.

action verb + de 得 + stative verb + reduplicated stative verb +de 的

Tā zhǎng de gāo gāo de.
他长得高高的。
He has grown very tall.

Jīntiān tā dǎbàn de piàopiàoliàngliàng de.
今天她打扮得漂漂亮亮的。
Today she is very beautifully dressed.

Note that the stative verb in A 4.2 has two syllables, ‘piào 漂 ' and ‘liàng 亮 '. If P stands for the first syllable and L stands for the second one, the way to double the word is 'PPLL ', not 'PLPL '.

action verb + de 得+ verbal expression

Tā pǎo de chuǎnbúshàng qì lái.
他跑得喘不上气来。
He was out of breath from running.

action verb + de 得+ idiomatic expression

Tā xiào de qiányǎnghòuhé.
他笑得前仰后合。
He rocks back and forth with laughter.

action verb + de 得 + clause

Tā shuō de wǒ gèng hútu le.
他说得我更糊涂了。
He spoke to such an extent that he made me even more confused.

When the main verb is an action verb and it TAKES an object or when the verb is a VO-compound (verb + object compound, such as zǒulù 走路 and shuìjiào 睡觉), the verb must be reduplicated before taking de 得 and the complement. Let 's call the first verb 'verb 1.1 ' and the reduplicated verb, 'verb 1.2 '. The complement can be hěn 很 / adverb + stative verb, a verbal or idiomatic expression, or a clause.

Verb 1.1 + object + Verb 1.2 + de 得 + complement

verb 1.1 + object + verb 1.2 + de 得 + hěn 很 + stative verb

Tā shuō Zhōngwén shuō de hěn hǎo
他说中文说得很好。
He speaks Chinese well.

Note that the verb and object before the reduplicated verb simply name the action. They point out what is to be commented on. The verb does not function as the main verb. The 'verb 1.1 + object expression ' can be understood as 'as far as speaking Chinese is concerned ' or 'as for speaking Chinese '. The reduplicated verb functions as the main verb. That is why the complement of degree is placed after it.

VO-compound + verb 1.2 + de 得 + hěn 很 + stative verb

Tāzǒulùzǒudehěn kuài.
他走路走得很快。
He walks fast.

VO-compound + verb 1.2 + de 得 + verbal expression

Tāpǎobùpǎodechuǎnbúshàng qì lái.
他跑步跑得喘不上气来。
He was out of breath from running.

verb 1.1 + object + verb 1.2 + de 得 + idiomatic expression

Tāhējiǔhēdeyūntóu-zhuànxiàng.
他喝酒喝得晕头转向。
He is dizzy and disoriented from drinking.

action verb + de 得 + clause

Tāchuīiúchuīdeshéi dōu bù xǐhuan tā.
他吹牛吹得谁都不喜欢他。
He boasts about himself to such an extent that no one likes him.

When the main verb is a stative verb, the complement can be a stative verb indicating degree such as lìhài 厉害 and duō 多, a verbal or idiomatic expression such as bù déliǎo 不得了 or a clause. Note that expressions such as de hěn 得很, de huang 得慌, bù déliǎo 不得了, and de duō 得多 have become idiomatic expressions. They are also called intensifiers by some scholars. So here we do not regard them as de 得 +adverb or de 得 +verbal expression. They will be regarded as idiomatic expressions. This is because they share the same properties as idiomatic expressions when they are negated. When the main verb is a stative verb, the stative verb and its complement follow the structure below.

stative verb + de 得 + complement

stative verb + de 得 + stative verb

Jīntiān wǒ kùndelìhài.
今天我困得厉害。
I am terrible sleepy today.

stative verb + de 得 + stative verb duō 多 used for comparison

Běijīng bǐ Shànghǎi lěngdeduō.
北京比上海冷得多。
Beijing is much colder than Shanghai.

stative verb + de 得 + verbal expression

Tā èdehūnguòqule.
他饿得昏过去了。
He was so hungry that he fainted.

stative verb + de 得 + idiomatic expression

Tāmen mángdebùkě kāijiāo.
他们忙得不可开交。
They are extremely busy.

Yàoshì nǐ èdehuangjiù chī diǎnr dōngxi.
要是你饿得慌就吃点儿东西。
If you are very hungry, snack on something.

stative verb + de 得 + clause

Tiānqi lěngdeshéi dōu bù xiǎng chūqū.
天气冷得谁都不想出去。
It is so cold that no one wants to go out.

III. The negative forms

If the complement is a stative verb, replace hěn 很 with bù 不 or bù 不 and other elements modifying the stative verb, such as bú tài 不太, bù zěnme 不怎么, etc. If the complement takes the form of 'stative verb + reduplicated stative verb + de 的 ', the negative form uses bù 不, the stative verb is not reduplicated and de 的 is eliminated.

Tā shuō de bù hǎo.
他说得不好。
He does not speak well.

Tā shuō Zhōngwén shuō de bú tài hǎo.
他说中文说得不太好。
He does not speak Chinese so well.

Tā zhǎng de bù gāo.
他长得不高。
He has not grown very tall.

Jīntiān tā dǎbàn de bú piàoliàng.
今天她打扮得不漂亮。
Today she is not dressed beautifully.

If the complement is a verbal or idiomatic expression, place méi 没 or méi yǒu 没有 before the main verb and eliminate the sentence-end le 了, if there is one.

Tā méi è de hūnguòqu.
他没饿得昏过去。
He was not so hungry as to faint.

Tā méi yǒu pǎo de chuǎnbúshàng qì lái.
他没有跑得喘不上气来。
He did not run to the extent that he was out of breath.

Tāmen méi máng de bùkě kāijiāo.
他们没忙得不可开交。
They are not extremely busy.

Wǒ méi è de bù dé liǎo, wǒ zhǐ shì yǒu yì diǎnr è.
我没饿得不得了，我只是有一点儿饿。
I am not terribly hungry. I am just a little hungry.

Because the hěn 很 and the huāng 慌 in the idiomatic expressions de hěn 得很 and de huang 得慌 are adverbs, the negative form for these two expressions uses bú 不 or bú tài 不太 before the main verb while de hěn 得很, de huang 得慌 and de duō 得多 are eliminated. Compare the positive and negative of de hěn 得很 and de huang 得慌.

Positive

Tiānqi lěng de hěn.
天气冷得很。
it's terribly cold.

Negative

Tiānqi bù lěng.
天气不冷。
it's not cold.

Positive

Wǒ è de huāng, gěi wǒ diǎnr dōngxi chī.
我饿得慌，给我点儿东西吃。
I 'm very hungry, give me something to eat.

Negative

Wǒ bú tài è, nǐ zìjǐ chī ba.
我不太饿，你自己吃吧。
I 'm not so hungry, YOU eat it.

If the complement is a clause, place méi 没 or méiyǒu 没有 before the main verb and eliminate the sentence-end le 了, if there is one.

Tā méi shuō de wǒ gèng hútu.
他没说得我更糊涂。
The way he said it did not make me even more confused.

Tiānqi méi yǒu lěng de shéi dōu bù xiǎng chūqù.
天气没有冷得谁都不想出去。
It is not so cold that no one wants to go out.

IV. The question forms

Stative verbs as complements.
If the complement is a stative verb, it can be used in both ma-questions and choice-type questions.

Ma 吗 question

Tā shuō de hǎo ma?
他说得好吗？
Does he speak well?

Choice-type Question

Tā shuō de hǎo bù hǎo?
他说得好不好？
Does he speak well, or not?

Other elements as complements.
When the complement is a stative verb in its reduplicated form, such asgāogāo de高高的 orpiàopiàoliàngliàng de 漂漂亮亮的, the stative verb must be changed back into its original form, i.e.gāo 高 or piàoliàng 漂亮, and de must be removed before it can be used in a ma-question or choice-type question. Compare the following sentences.

Declarative sentences

Tā zhǎng de gāo gāo de.
他长得高高的。
He has grown very tall.

Ma-question

Tā zhǎng de gāo ma?
他长得高吗？
Has he grown very tall?

Choice-type question

Tā zhǎng de gāo bù gāo?
他长得高不高？
Has he grown very tall, or not?

Other elements as complements.
If the complement is a verbal or idiomatic expression or a clause, it can be used in a ma-question, but not in a choice-type question. However, such expressions can use 'shìbúshì 是不是 ' to form a tag question. 'Shìbúshì 是不是 ' can also be placed after the subject to form a question. The following are a few examples.

verbal expression as complement

Tā pǎo de chuǎnbúshàng qì lái, shì bú shì?
他跑得喘不上气来，是不是？
He was out of breath from running, right?

idiomatic expression as complement

Tā shì bú shì xiào de qiányǎnghòuhé?
他是不是笑得前仰后合？
Is it the case that he is rocking back and forth with laughter?

clause as complement

Tiānqi lěng de shéi dōu bù xiǎng chūqù, shì bú shì?
天气冷得谁都不想出去，是不是？
It is so cold that no one wants to go out, right?

V. When to use the complement of Degree

The complement of degree is used in the following context:

When commenting on an action. The comment is usually an assessment or evaluation of the action with a focus on its quality, demeanor, appearance, quantity, time, frequency or duration. It reflects the speaker 's opinion ABOUT the action.

Quality

Tā shuō de hěn qīngchǔ.
他说得很清楚。
He speaks very clearly.

Tā pǎo de tài màn le.
他跑得太慢了。
He runs too slowly.

Demeanor

Tā xué de bú tài yònggōng.
他学得不太用功。
He does not study so hard.

Tā shuō de fēicháng bú kèqi.
他说得非常不客气。He sounded very impolite.

Appearance

Wáng xiǎojiě zhǎng de yòu gāo yòu shòu.
王小姐长得又高又瘦。Miss Wang is (or: has grown) tall and thin.

Tā zhǎng de xiàng tā mǔqīn.
他长得像他母亲。
He looks like (has grown to look like) his mother.

Quantity

Tā chī de tài duō le, suǒyǐ hěn pàng.
他吃得太多了，所以很胖。
He eats too much, so he's fat.

Tā zuò fàn zuò de bú gòu.
他做饭做得不够。
He did not make enough food.

Time, Duration and Frequency

Tā měitiān dōu lái de hěn wǎn.
他每天都来得很晚。
He comes late every day.

Wǒmen děng de tài jiǔ le.
我们等得太久了，
We have waited too long.

Xǐ tóu xǐ de tài qín duì tóufa bù hǎo.
洗头洗得太勤对头发不好。
Washing one's hair too often is not good for one's hair.

When describing what state the action has caused someone or something to be in;

Tā bìng de bù néng lái shàng bān le.
他病得不能来上班了。
He is so sick that he can't come to work.

The purpose of saying 'he can't come to work ' is to describe how sick 'he ' is. The focus of the sentence is still on the verb 'sick '.

Tā xiě de shǒu dōu suān le.
他写得手都酸了。
He wrote so much that his hand ached.

The purpose of saying 'his hand ached ' is to describe how much 'he ' has written or how long he has been writing. The focus is still on the verb 'write '.

When describing how serious the situation is.

Tā è de hūnguòqù le.
他饿得昏过去了。
He was so hungry that he fainted.

'He fainted ' describes how hungry 'he ' was. The message that 'he was hungry ' is still central to the remark.

Tiānqi lěng de shéi dōu bù xiǎng chūqù.
天气冷得谁都不想出去。
It is so cold that no one wants to go out.

'No one wants to go out ' is a description of how cold the weather is.

VI. Potential Complement And Degree Complement In Contrast

What are the features that distinguish the complement of degree from the potential complement? Look at the following pairs of complements in their positive and negative forms and ask yourself what complements they are.

zuò de hěn hǎo 做得很好 and zuò de bù hǎo 做得不好

zuò de hǎo 做得好 and zuò bù hǎo 做不好

zuò hǎo 做好 and méi (yǒu) zuò hǎo 没(有)做好

Key:

Complement of Degree: assessment of the action; description of the action or state

zuò de hěn hǎo 做得 很好 zuò de bù hǎo 做得 不好
negative: negation on stative verb
stress: on the complement - highlighted part

Potential Complement: can or can't do something in certain way; can or can't attain a purpose;

zuò de hǎo 做得好 zuò bù hǎo 做不好
negative: replace de 得 with bù 不
stress: on the verb - highlighted word

Complement of Result: the result of an action initiated by the verb. The complement announces the result of the action.

zuòhǎo 做好 méi (yǒu) zuòhǎo 没(有)做好
negative: negation on the verb

Among these, A and C can be hard to understand. The focus in A is on assessment. The speaker expresses his/her opinion ABOUT the action. The focus in C is on announcing the result of the action. Perhaps this analogy will help you to understand the difference. Example A is like the teacher telling his student whether she did well or not; example C is like the teacher telling his student the letter grade she received.

The following table shows how different complements behave in positive, negative and interrogative sentences. Highlighted words are stressed in speech.

| Degree Complement | Potential Complement Positive
Positive | xiě de hěn hǎo ￼ 写得很好 ...write well | xiědehǎo ￼ 写得好 ...can write well
Negative | xiě de bù hǎo ￼ 写得不好 ...write badly | xiěbùhǎo ￼ 写不好 ...cannot write well
Ma吗Question | xiě de hǎo ma? ￼ 写得好吗？ ...write well? | xiědehǎo ma? ￼ 写得好吗？ ...can write well?
Choice-type Question | xiě de hǎo bù hǎo? ￼ 写得好不好 ？ ...write well? | xiědehǎo xiěbùhǎo? ￼ 写得好写不好 ？ ...can write well?
Verb taking an object | xiě Hànzì xiě de hěn hǎo 写汉字写得很好 ...write characters well | xiědehǎo Hànzì ￼ 写得好汉字 ...can write characters well

xiě de hěn hǎo 写得很好 ...write well xiědehǎo 写得好 ...can write well Negative xiě de bù hǎo 写得不好 ...write badly xiěbùhǎo 写不好 ...cannot write well Ma吗Question xiě de hǎo ma? 写得好吗？ ...write well? xiědehǎo ma? 写得好吗？ ...can write well? Choice-type Question xiě de hǎo bù hǎo? 写得好不好 ？ ...write well? xiědehǎo xiěbùhǎo? 写得好写不好 ？ ...can write well? Verb taking an object xiě Hànzì xiě de hěn hǎo 写汉字写得很好 ...write characters well xiědehǎo Hànzì 写得好汉字 ...can write characters well

Degree Complement or Potential Complement? Try these two sentences.

Zhèi ge zì zhème nán, tā xiědehǎo ma? 这个字这么难，他写得好吗？

2. Lǎoshī shuō zhèi ge zì Xiǎo Wáng xiě de hěn hǎo. 老师说这个字小王写得很好。

Key

1. This character is so difficult, can he write it well? (potential)

2. The teacher said that Young Wang wrote this character well. (degree)

Note that when the complement of degree is a stative verb, it is often modified by an adverb, but the potential complement can never take any adjunct before or after it.

For example: Complement of Degree Lǎoshī shuō zhèi ge zì Xiǎo Lǐ xiě de fēicháng hǎo. (The stress is on the complement.) 老师说这个字小李写得非常好。 Remember that another difference between the potential and degree complements lies in the fact that the sentence stress falls on different elements in the two sentences, affected by the two kinds of complement: Potential Complement Tā xiě de hǎo. (The stress is on the verb.) 他写得好。 He can write well. Degree Complement Tā xiě de hěn hǎo. (The stress is on the complement.) 他写得很好。 He writes well.

The potential complement has a fixed form; that is, it consists only of a single adjective or verb (or verbal construction, such as qǐlái起来, xiàqù下去etc.), such as tīngbùqīngchu听不清楚---can't hear clearly, chīdewán吃得完---can finish eating\can eat up the food, xiǎngdeqǐlái想得起来---can remember. A verb with a potential complement can take an object (e.g. zuòbùwán gōngkè做不完功课cannot finish homework), but the degree complement cannot be followed by the object of the verb. (For example, you can't say 'Tā chàng de hěn hǎo gē他唱得很好歌He sings [songs] well ', you must say 'Tā chàng gē chàng de hěn hǎo他唱歌唱得很好---no objects can be placed after hǎo好.). Moreover, the degree complement has different forms---it may be a single word or a subject-predicate construction.

For example:

Degree Complement

Tā shuō de dàjiā dōu xiàoqǐlái le.
他说得大家都笑起来了。
He spoke in such a way that everyone broke into laughter.

VI. Potential Complement And Degree Complement In Contrast

src="potential-form-1.mp3" src="potential-form-2.mp3" src="potential-form-3.mp3" src="potential-form-4.mp3" src="potential-form-5.mp3" src="potential-form-6.mp3" src="potential-form-7.mp3" src="potential-form-8.mp3" src="copy.mp3" src="potential-form-10.mp3" src="VI-1.mp3" src="VI-2.mp3" src="VI-laoshishuo.mp3" src="VI-taxiedehao.mp3" src="VI-taxiedehenhao.mp3" src="VI-tashuodedajia.mp3"

The potential complement and the complement of degree may sometimes look identical and cause confusion to non-native speakers of Chinese. The following two sentences are taken out of context. They look the same, but they could mean very different things. In sentence A, the stress is on the complement 'hǎo 好 (well) '. In sentence B, the stress is on the predicate verb 'chàng 唱 (to sing) '. Because the complement of degree focuses on the quality of an action, while the potential complement focuses on whether the action can be carried out, the complement in sentence A is a degree complement while the one in sentence B is potential. It would be hard to tell the difference if one read these sentences in characters and out of context. In real conversation, there is no confusion because of the context and the stress put on different words. Please see the following examples. Words highlighted in yellow are stressed.

Tā chàng de hǎo ma? (degree complement; note there is space between the verb and the complement.)
她唱得好吗？
Does she sing well?

Tā chàng de hǎo ma? (potential complement; note that there is no space between the verb and the complement)
她唱得好吗？
Can she sing well?

A closer examination of these two complements reveals even more differences. The following chart shows their different forms. Highlighted words are stressed when spoken.

| Degree Complement | Potential Complement
Positive | xiě de hěn hǎo ￼ 写得很好 ...write well | xiě de hǎo ￼ 写得好 ...can write well
Negative | xiě de bù hǎo ￼ 写得不好 ...write badly | xiě bù hǎo ￼ 写不好 ...cannot write well
Ma 吗 Question | xiě de hǎo ma? ￼ 写得好吗？ ...write well? | xiě de hǎo ma? ￼ 写得好吗？ ...can write well?
Choice-type Question | xiě de hǎo bù hǎo? ￼ 写得好不好 ？ ...write well? | xiě de hǎo xiě bù hǎo? ￼ 写得好写不好 ？ ...can write well?
Verb taking an object | xiě Hànzì xiě de hěn hǎo 写汉字写得很好 ...write characters well | xiě de hǎo Hànzì ￼ 写得好汉字 ...can write characters well

The complement of degree is an assessment of an action or state. Therefore, the stress is on the complement, which comments on the action or state. The complement can be modified by adverbs such as hěn 很, fēicháng 非常, tèbié 特别.

Tā xiě de fēicháng hǎo.
他写得非常好。
He writes very well.

The potential complement expresses possibility. Therefore, the stress is on the action itself. This is why the predicate verb is stressed. No adverbs can modify the complement.

Tā xiědehǎo.
他写得好。
He can write well.

The negative form of the complement of degree keeps the particle de 得 and negates the stative verb with bù 不. The stress is on the negative adverb and the complement.

Tā xiě de bù hǎo.
他写得不好。
He writes badly.

The negative form of the potential complement replaces the particle de 得 with bù 不. The stress is on the predicate verb.

Tā xiěbùhǎo.
他写不好。
He can't write well.

The complement of degree and the potential complement look the same in ma 吗 question form, but the stress falls on different elements when spoken. Compare the following two sentences.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de hǎo ma?
他写得好吗？
Does he write well?

The potential complement:

Tā xiědehǎo ma?
他写得好吗？
Can he write well?

The complement of degree and the potential complement have different choice-type question forms. The complement of degree forms a choice-type question by juxtaposing the affirmative and negative forms of the stative verb; the potential complement forms a choice-type question by juxtaposing the affirmative and negative forms of the predicate verb and its complement.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de hǎo bù hǎo?
他写得好不好？
Does he write well?

The potential complement:

Tā xiědehǎo xiěbùhǎo?
他写得好写不好？
Can he write well?

A verb with a potential complement can take an object, but the degree complement cannot be followed by the object of the verb.

The potential complement:

Tā xiěbùhǎo Hànzì.
他写不好汉字。
He can't write characters well.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de bù hǎo Hànzì. (ungrammatical) (The complement of degree can't take an object.)
他写得不好汉字。
He does not write characters well.
Tā xiě Hànzì xiě de bù hǎo. (grammatical)
他写汉字写得不好。
He writes characters badly.

The complement of degree can be used in bǎ 把 - sentences, while the potential complement can't.

Tā bǎ dìtú guà de gāogāode.
他把地图挂得高高的。
He hung the map high up.

The Complement Of Result

What are resultative complements?

What can serve as a complement of result?

Sentence structures with resultative complements

Declarative sentences

When the main verb does not have an object

When the main verb takes an object which does not have a modifier

When the main verb takes an object which has a modifier

Negative sentences

Interrogative sentences

The complement of result used in bǎ把sentences

Stative verbs as complements

Verbs as complements

I. What are resultative complements?

In English, the verb 'hear ' has two semantic units, the sensory action 'to listen ' and perception as a result of the action. The verb 'see ' also has two semantic units with one indicating the action of looking and the other indicating perception as the result.

Only a small number of Chinese verbs resemble such English verbs as 'hear ' and 'see '. Most Chinese verbs resemble the verb 'listen ' and 'look ' in English, which only indicate the sensory actions without a built-in semantic unit indicating result.

Therefore, there are no such verbs as 'hear ', 'see ', 'find ', 'kill ' and so on in Chinese. For example, the verb tīng 听 (to listen) and kàn 看 (look) do not indicate whether the sound has been heard or whether the object has been seen. Not having a built-in semantic unit indicating result, Chinese verbs have to take an additional resultative unit to report whether the action is successful.

This unit is what we call the resultative complement. It is placed immediately after the verb to indicate the result of the action. In the case of tīng 听 (to listen) and kàn 看 (to look), the verb jiàn 见 (to perceive) must be used as a complement to form combos that indicate perception, such as tīngjiàn 听见 for 'hear ' and kànjiàn 看见 for 'see ' .

II. What can serve as a complement of result?

As seen earlier, the complement of result for sensory action verbs indicating perception is the verb jiàn 见 (perceive). If the result focuses on comprehension, the complement would be the verb dǒng 懂 (understand). So 'understand what one hears ' would be tīngdǒng 听懂 and 'understand what one sees or reads ' would be kàndǒng 看懂.

If the result focuses on completion, the complement would use the verb wán 完 (finish). So 'finish listening ' would be tīngwán 听完 and 'finish seeing or reading ' would be kànwán 看完.

These examples show that a variety of verbs can be suffixed to a verb to indicate a particular resultative aspect of an action. In addition, commendatory stative verbs can be used as complements indicating intended results while derogatory stative verbs are used for unintended results.

For example, duì 对 is a stative verb meaning 'correct ' and cuò 错 is one meaning 'wrong '. So 'write correctly ' is xiěduì 写对 while 'write incorrectly ' is xiěcuò 写错. Duì 对 is the intended result while cuò 错 is not.

III. Sentence structures with resultative complements

The resultative complement is a verb or stative verb suffixed to the main verb. A few things to remember when constructing a sentence in which the verb takes a resultative complement are:

Nothing can be placed between the verb and the complement.

Wǒ kànjiàn tā le.
我看见她了。
I saw her.

If le 了 is used, it should be placed at the end of the sentence.

If the object has a modifier, the object is often placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Nà gè wèntí wǒ huídá duì le.
那个问题我回答对了。
I answered that question correctly.

The following examples show how resultative complements are used in declarative, negative, interrogative and bǎ 把 sentences.

IV. Declarative sentences

When the main verb does not have an object.

subject + verb + complement + le 了

Wǒ chīwán le.
￼ 我吃完了。
I finished eating. I ate.

When the main verb takes an object which does not have a modifier.

subject + verb + complement + simple object + le 了

Wǒ chīwán fàn le. ￼
我吃完饭了。
I finished eating (the food/meal). I ate (the food/meal).

When the main verb takes an object which has a modifier.

modifier + object + subject + verb + complement + le 了

Nèi gè wèntí wǒ huídáduì le. ￼
那个问题我回答对了。
I answered that question correctly.

V. Negative sentences

Negative sentences are formed by placing méi 没 or méi yǒu 没有 in front of the main verb and dropping the le 了.

Nèi gè wèntí wǒ méi huídáduì.
那个问题我没回答对。
I did not answer that question correctly.

The negative form may also use bù 不 instead of méi yǒu 没有, but this commonly occurs only in conditional clauses describing actions that have not been carried out. Compare the highlighted parts in the following sentences. One uses bù 不 while the other uses méi 没.

Negative form using bù 不 implying a condition.

Wǒ bú zuòwán zuòyè jiù bú shuìjiào.
我不做完作业就不睡觉。
If I don't finish doing my homework, I will not go to bed.

Comparison with méi 没 or méiyǒu 没有, which does not imply a condition.

Wǒ méi zuòwán zuòyè.
我没做完作业。
I did not finish doing my homework.

VI. Interrogative sentences

Interrogative sentences are formed by using ma 吗 or méi yǒu 没有 at the end of the sentence.

Nǐ zuòwán zuòyè le ma? or: Nǐ zuòwán zuòyè le méiyǒu?
你做完作业了吗？ 你做完作业了没有？
Have you finished doing your homework?

Positive answer

Zuòwán le.
做完了。
Yes, I have.

Negative answer

Méi zuòwán.
没做完。
I haven't.

VII. The complement of result used in bǎ 把 sentences

Because bǎ 把 sentences are used to point out what has happened to the object as the result of an action, the verb always has to take an element to indicate specifically how the object is consequentially affected or how someone intends to affect it. Therefore, the resultative complement is often used in bǎ 把 sentences.

Wǒ bǎ nǐ-de mén xiūhǎo le.
我把你的门修好了。
I fixed your door.

The desired result of‘repairing ' is to make something work again --- to be as good as before. The stative verb hǎo 好 is used here to indicate the result of the action xiū 修 (to fix).

Wǒ bǎ jīntiān de zuòyè zuòwán le.
我把今天的作业做完了。
I finished today 's homework.

The desired result of doing homework is to finish it. Zuò 做 indicates the action of 'doing ' and wán 完 indicates completion. With the modal particle le 了 indicating accomplished fact, this sentence indicates that the subject (agent), wǒ 我, has brought “today 's homework” to the stage of completion as a result of doing it.

VIII. Stative verb as the complement

Only stative verbs and verbs can be used as resultative complements.

Stative verbs, such as duì 对 correct, cuò 错 wrong, hǎo 好 good, huài 坏 broken, bǎo 饱 full, qīngchu 清楚 clear, etc, can be used as resultative complements. Most stative verbs are monosyllabic, only a few are disyllabic. These stative verbs are suffixed to verbs to emphasize different resultative aspects of the action.

-duì 对 correct

huídáduì 回答对 answer correctly

cāiduì 猜对 guess correctly

shuōduì 说对 speak correctly

xiěduì 写对 write correctly

zuòduì 做对 do correctly

etc.

Example:

huídáduì 回答对 (huídá 回答 to answer + duì 对 correct): answer correctly

Nèixiē wèntí tā dōu huídáduì le.
那些问题她都回答对了。
She answered all of the questions correctly.

-cuò 错 incorrect, wrong

huídácuò 回答错 answer incorrectly

cāicuò 猜错 guess incorrectly

shuōcuò 说错 speak/say incorrectly

xiěcuò 写错 write incorrectly

kàncuò 看错 see/read incorrectly

tīngcuò 听错 hear incorrectly

zuòcuò 做错 do incorrectly

etc.

Example:

xiěcuò 写错: xiě 写 to write + cuò 错 incorrect ⇒ write incorrectly

Zhèi ge zì nǐ xiěcuò le. Yīnggāi xiě 'tiān ', kěshì nǐ xiě de shì 'fū '.
这个字你写错了。应该写‘天 '，可是你写的是‘夫 '。
You wrote this character incorrectly. You should have written tiān 天, but you wrote fū 夫 instead.

-hǎo 好 achieve completion/achieve an adequate result

zuòhǎo 做好 done; finish doing

zhǔnbèihǎo 准备好 finish preparing

xiěhǎo 写好 finish writing

xiūhǎo 修好 fixed; repaired

xuéhǎo 学好 study well

shuìhǎo 睡好 sleep well

etc.

Example 1:
zuòhǎo 做好 (zuò 做 to do/to cook + hǎo 好 done) done; finish doing

Wǎnfàn zuòhǎo le.
晚饭做好了。
Dinner is ready.

Example 2:

xiūhǎo 修好 (xiū 修 fix/repair + hǎo 好 good): fixed; repaired
Wǒ-de chē hái méi xiūhǎo ne. 我的车还没修好呢。 My car is not yet fixed.

Example 3:
shuìhǎo 睡好 (shuì 睡 sleep + hǎo 好 well): sleep well

Zuótiān wǎnshàng wǒ méi shuìhǎo jiào, suǒyǐ jīntiān juéde hěn lèi.
昨天晚上我没睡好觉，所以今天觉得很累。
Last night I did not sleep well, so I feel tired today.

-huài 坏 bad; broken nònghuài 弄坏 break; cause something to break

Example:
nònghuài 弄坏 (nòng 弄 to cause + huài 坏 broken): break

Tā bǎ wǒ-de diànnǎo nònghuài le.
他把我的电脑弄坏了。
He broke my computer.

-bǎo 饱 full (often suffixed to chī 吃) chībǎo 吃饱 full (as a result of eating)

Example:

chībǎo 吃饱 (chī 吃 eat + bǎo 饱 full): full as a result of eating
Wǒ chībǎo le, bù néng zài chī le.
我吃饱了，不能再吃了。
I 'm full, I can't eat any more.

-qīngchu 清楚 clear

kànqīngchu 看清楚 see clearlybr/>

tīngqīngchu 听清楚 hear clearly

shuōqīngchu 说清楚 speak clearly

xiěqīngchu 写清楚 write clearly

etc.

Example:
tīngqīngchu 听清楚(tīng 听 listen + qīngchu 清楚 clear) hear clearly

Duìbùqǐ, wǒ méi tīngqīngchu. Qǐng zài shuō yí biàn.
对不起，我没听清楚，请再说一遍。
Sorry, I didn't hear clearly. Please say it again.

IX. Verbs as complements

Only stative verbs and verbs can be used as resultative complements.

Verbs are often used as complements to indicate different resultative aspects of an action, such as wán 完 finish, jiàn 见, dào 到, zháo 着, liǎo 了, zhù 住, dǒng 懂, dòng 动, kāi 开, huì 会, zài 在, gěi 给, chéng 成, zuò 作, wéi 为, zǒu 走, pǎo 跑, sǐ 死, tòu 透, etc.

-wán 完 finish (can go with many verbs to indicate that someone has finished doing the action)

kànwán 看完 finish (reading/watching/seeing)

shuōwán 说完 finish (speaking/talking)

xuéwán 学完 finish (studying)

zuòwán 做完 finish (doing)

xiěwán 写完 finish (writing)

etc.

Example:

kànwán 看完 (kàn 看 read + wán 完 finish) finish reading

Zhèi běn shū nǐ kànwán le méi yǒu?
这本书你看完了没有？
Have you finished reading the book?

-jiàn 见 perceive (jiàn 见 indicates perception)

kànjiàn 看见 see

tīngjiàn 听见 hear

pèngjiàn 碰见 bump into

yùjiàn 遇见 run into

etc.

Example:

kànjiàn 看见 (kàn 看 look + jiàn 见 perceive) see

Zuótiān wǒ méi (yǒu) kànjiàn Lǎo Wáng.
昨天我没(有)看见老王。
Yesterday I did not see Old Wang.

-dào 到 (1). implying that an action has attained the expected aim or result

kàndào 看到 see

tīngdào 听到 hear

yùdào 遇到 run into

jiēdào 接到 receive

shōudào 收到 receive

zhǎodào 找到 find

mǎidào 买到 succeed in buying

etc.

Example 1:

zhǎodào 找到 (zhǎo 找 to look for + dào 到 [attain the expected result]) find

Wǒ zhǎodào Lǐ Xiānsheng le.
我找到李先生了。
I have found Mr. Li.

Example 2:

mǎidào 买到 (mǎi 买 to buy + dào 到 [attain the expected result]) succeed in buying

Wǒ qùwǎn le. Méi yǒu mǎidào diànyǐng piào.
我去晚了。没有买到电影票。
I was late./ I got there late. [So,] I did not manage to get the movie tickets.

-dào 到 (2) : reach or arrive at (a place or a point of time)

zǒudào 走到 walk to /until/up to

pǎodào 跑到 run to /until/up to

xuédào 学到 study until/up to,

shuìdào 睡到 sleep until/up to

mángdào 忙到 be busy until/up to

kàndào 看到 read or watch until/up to

tīngdào 听到 listen until/up to

etc.

Example 1:

xuédào 学到 (xué 学 to study + dào 到 until/up to) study until/up to

Wǒmen xuédào Dì Bā Kè le
我们学到第八课了。
We have studied up to Lesson 8 so far.

Example 2:

Zuótiān wǎnshang wǒmen xué Zhōngwén xuédào shíyī diǎn.
昨天晚上我们学中文学到十一点。
We studied Chinese until 11 o 'clock last night.

-zhá 着 implying that an action has attained the expected aim or result

zhǎozháo 找着 find (找着 is the same as zhǎodào 找到.)

shuìzháo 睡着 fall asleep (not the same as 睡到)

etc.

Example:

shuìzháo 睡着 (shuì 睡 to sleep + zháo 着[attain the expected result]) fall asleep

Háizi-men dōu shuìzháo le.
孩子们都睡着了。
The children have all fallen asleep.

-zhù 住 has the meaning of retaining or keeping something at a certain place as the result of the action

jìzhù 记住 remember; learn by heart; bear in mind

názhù 拿住 hold in place by hand(s)

etc.

Example:

jìzhù 记住 (jì 记 to remember + zhù 住 retain/keep) learn by heart, bear in mind

Tā-de dìzhǐ wǒ méi jìzhù.
他的地址我没记住。
I did not learn his address by heart.

-dǒng 懂 understand; comprehend

kàndǒng 看懂 understand by reading/looking

tīngdǒng 听懂 understand by listening

etc.

Example:

tīngdǒng 听懂 (tīng 听 to listen + dǒng 懂 understand) understand by listening

Nǐ-de huà wǒ méi tīngdǒng. Néng bù néng zài shuō yí biàn.
你的话我没听懂。能不能再说一遍？
I did not understand what you said. Can you say it again?

-kāi 开 to be open as a result of opening

dǎkāi 打开 to open

kāikāi 开开 to open

etc.

Example:

kāikāi 开开 (kāi 开 to open + kāi 开 being open) to make ... open
Qǐng bǎ mén kāikāi.

请把门开开。
Please open the door.

-huì 会 know how to do something/master a skill through the action

xuéhuì 学会 learn; master

Example:

xuéhuì 学会 (xué 学 to learn + huì 会 know how to) learn; master

Wǒ xuéhuì kāichē le.
我学会开车了。
I have learnt how to drive a car.

-zài 在 located at a place as a result of the action

fàngzài 放在 put at; to be put at

zhùzài 住在 to live at ...

zuòzài 坐在 to sit at

zhànzài 站在 stand at

xiězài 写在 write on

guàzài 挂在 hang on

etc.

Example:

zhànzài 站在 (zhàn 站 to stand + zài 在 at) to stand at a place

Tiānqi zhème lěng, bié zhànzài wàitou.
天气这么冷，别站在外头。
It is so cold, don't stand outside.

-gěi 给 to (pointing out the recipient)

sònggěi 送给 to give to

jìgěi 寄给 to send to

jiègěi 借给 to lend to

màigěi 卖给 to sell to

etc.

Example:

jiègěi 借给 (jiè 借 to lend + gěi 给 to) to lend to
Tā jiègěi wǒ yì běn shū.

他借给我一本书。
He lent me a book.

-chéng 成 become; as

fānyìchéng 翻译成 to translate into

biànchéng 变成 to change into

kànchéng 看成 to regard as; to recognize ... mistakenly as ...

tīngchéng 听成 to hear ... mistakenly as ...

xiěchéng 写成 to write ... mistakenly as ...; to adapt...into

etc.

Example:

xiěchéng 写成 (xiě 写 to write + chéng 成 become) to write ... mistakenly as ...; to adapt...into

Wǒ bǎ “tiān” xiěchéng “fū” le.
我把“天”写成“夫”了。
I wrote 夫 instead of 天.

-zuò 作

kànzuò 看作 to regard as ...

dāngzuò 当作 to regard as ...

etc.

Example:

dāngzuò 当作 to regard as ...

Wáng tàitai bǎ wǒ dāngzuò zìjǐ-de érzi.
王太太把我当作自己的儿子。
Mrs. Wang regards me as her own son.

-zǒu 走 away

názǒu 拿走 to take away

bānzǒu 搬走 to move away

sòngzǒu 送走 to see off

dàizǒu 带走 to take away

etc.

Example:

bānzǒu 搬走 (bān 搬 to move + zǒu 走 away) to move away

Lǎo Zhāng jiā bānzǒu le.
老张家搬走了。
The Old Zhangs moved away.

-sǐ 死 death; (exaggeration indicating extreme)

lèisǐ 累死 extremely tired; tired to death

rèsǐ 热死 extremely hot; deathly hot

èsǐ 饿死 starving; extremely hungry

etc.

Example:

rèsǐ 热死 (rè 热 hot + sǐ 死 death) extremely hot

Tiānqi rèsǐ le.
天气热死了。
The weather is extremely hot.

The Potential Complement

What is the potential complement? II.

The structure and features of the potential complement

The potential complement and the complement of degree in contrast

The potential complement in idiomatic expressions

I. What is the potential complement?

The potential complement indicates whether an action can or cannot be carried out. The positive form uses de 得 between the verb and the complement; the negative form uses bù 不 between the verb and the complement. The complement can be a verb (e.g. kàndedǒng 看得懂 can understand by reading) or a stative verb (e.g. kànbùqīngchu 看不清楚 can't see clearly).

II. The structure and features of the potential complement

Positive form | predicate verb + de 得 + verb/stative verb zuòdewán 做得完 can finish doing ...
Negative form | predicate verb + bù 不 + verb/stative verb zuòbùwán 做不完 can't finish doing ...
Ma 吗 question form | predicate verb + de 得 + verb/stative verb + ma 吗? zuòdewán ma? 做得完吗？can finish doing?
Choice-type question form | predicate verb + de 得 + verb/stative verb + predicate verb + bù 不 + verb/stative verb zuòdewán zuòbùwán? 做得完做不完？can finish doing?

The negative form uses bù 不 to replace de 得.

Potential complements do not take le 了, because they express possibility, not an accomplished fact or completion of an action.

Potential complements are not used in bǎ 把-Sentences because bǎ 把-sentences focus on result, not possibility.

The positive form and the ma 吗 -question form can use néng 能 before the predicate verb. It does not change the meaning of the sentence.

Potential complements cannot be modified by adverbs such as hěn 很, fēicháng 非常, etc.

Before you move on, study some examples of these forms in complete sentences.

Positive form

Jīntiān de gōngzuò bù duō, liǎng diǎn yǐqián yídìng gàndewán.
今天的工作不多，两点以前一定干得完。
There is not much work today. We can definitely finish it before two o 'clock.

Zhèi zhāng zhuōzi bú zhòng, wǒ yí ge rén bāndedòng.
这张桌子不重，我一个人搬得动。
This table is not heavy. I can move it by myself.

Bú yòng kāi dēng, wǒ kàndeqīngchu.
不用开灯，我看得清楚。
No need to turn on the light. I can see clearly.

Tā zhème yònggōng, yídìng kǎodeshàng dàxué.
他这么用功，一定考得上大学。
He's so hardworking. He will definitely be able to pass the college entrance exam.

Negative form

Zhèixiē Hànzì zhēn nán xiě, wǒ zǒngshì xiěbùhǎo.
这些汉字真难写，我总是写不好。
These characters are really hard to write. I can never write them well.

Wǒ-de Yīngwén shū zhǎobúdào le.
我的英文书找不到了。
I can't find my English book any more.

Hē-le chá wǒ jiù shuìbùzháo jiào le.
喝了茶我就睡不着觉了。
After drinking tea, I won't be able to fall asleep.

Shuōbúduì kěyǐ zài shuō yí biàn.
说不对可以再说一边。
If you can't say it correctly, you may say it again.

Ma question form

Yì tiān xué liù ge Hànzì, nǐ jìdezhù ma?
一天学六个汉字，你记得住吗？
You study six characters a day. Can you remember them?

Tā shuō de zhème kuài, nǐ tīngdedǒng ma?
他说得这么快，你听得懂吗？
He speaks so fast. Can you understand?

Zuòzài hòubiānr de tóngxué kàndeqīngchu ma?
坐在后边儿的同学看得清楚吗？
Can students sitting in the back see clearly?

Nǐ yí ge rén chīdeliǎo zhème duō fàn ma?
你一个人吃得了这么多饭吗？
Can you alone eat so much food?

Choice-type question form

Shān hěn gāo, nǐ shàngdeqù shàngbúqù?
山很高，你上得去上不去？
The mountain is high. Can you climb it?

Nǐ míngtiān láideliǎo láibùliǎo?
你明天来得了来不了？
Can you come tomorrow?

Tā pǎodekuài pǎobúkuài?
他跑得快跑不快？
Can he run fast?

Zhèi jiān jiàoshì zuòdexià zuòbúxià èrshí ge rén?
这间教室坐得下坐不下二十个人？
Can this classroom seat twenty people?

used with néng 能

Zhème duō gōngzuò nǐ néng gàndewán ma?
这么多工作你能干得完吗？
Can you finish so much work?

Wǒ néng tīngdedǒng shōuyīnjīli de Zhōngwén jiémù.
我能听得懂收音机里的中文节目。
I can understand the Chinese programs on the radio.

III. The potential complement and the complement of degree in contrast

The potential complement and the complement of degree may sometimes look identical and cause confusion to non-native speakers of Chinese. The following two sentences are taken out of context. They look the same, but they could mean very different things. In sentence A, the stress is on the complement ‘hǎo 好(well) '. In sentence B, the stress is on the predicate verb ‘chàng 唱 (to sing) '. Because the complement of degree focuses on the quality of an action, while the potential complement focuses on whether the action can be carried out, the complement in sentence A is a degree complement while the one in sentence B is potential. It would be hard to tell the difference if one read these sentences in characters and out of context. In real conversation, there is no confusion because of the context and the stress put on different words. Please see the following examples. Words highlighted in yellow are stressed.

Tā chàng de hǎo ma? (degree complement; note there is space between the verb and the complement.)
她唱得好吗？
Does she sing well?

Tā chàng de hǎo ma? (potential complement; note that there is no space between the verb and the complement)
她唱得好吗？
Can she sing well?

A closer examination of these two complements reveals even more differences. The following chart shows their different forms. Highlighted words are stressed when spoken.

| Degree Complement | Potential Complement
Positive | xiě de hěn hǎo 写得很好 ...write well | xiě de hǎo 写得好 ...can write well
Negative | xiě de bù hǎo 写得不好 ...write badly | xiě bù hǎo 写不好 ...cannot write well
Ma 吗 Question | xiě de hǎo ma? 写得好吗？ ...write well? | xiě de hǎo ma? 写得好吗？ ...can write well?
Choice-type Question | xiě de hǎo bù hǎo? 写得好不好 ？ ...write well? | xiě de hǎo xiě bù hǎo? 写得好写不好 ？ ...can write well?
Verb taking an object | xiě Hànzì xiě de hěn hǎo 写汉字写得很好 ...write characters well | xiě de hǎo Hànzì 写得好汉字 ...can write characters well

The complement of degree is an assessment of an action or state. Therefore, the stress is on the complement, which comments on the action or state. The complement can be modified by adverbs such as hěn 很, fēicháng 非常, tèbié 特别.

Tā xiě de fēicháng hǎo.
他写得非常好。
He writes very well.

The potential complement expresses possibility. Therefore, the stress is on the action itself. This is why the predicate verb is stressed. No adverbs can modify the complement.

Tā xiě de hǎo.
他写得好。
He can write well.

The negative form of the complement of degree keeps the particle de 得 and negates the stative verb with bù 不. The stress is on the negative adverb and the complement.

Tā xiě de bù hǎo.
他写得不好。
He writes badly.

The negative form of the potential complement replaces the particle de 得 with bù 不. The stress is on the predicate verb.

Tā xiěbùhǎo.
他写不好。
He can't write well.

The complement of degree and the potential complement look the same in ma 吗 question form, but the stress falls on different elements when spoken. Compare the following two sentences.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de hǎo ma?
他写得好吗？
Does he write well?

The potential complement:

Tā xiě de hǎo ma?
他写得好吗？
Can he write well?

The complement of degree and the potential complement have different choice-type question forms. The complement of degree forms a choice-type question by juxtaposing the affirmative and negative forms of the stative verb; the potential complement forms a choice-type question by juxtaposing the affirmative and negative forms of the predicate verb and its complement.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de hǎo bù hǎo?
他写得好不好？
Does he write well?

The potential complement:

Tā xiědehǎo xiěbùhǎo?
他写得好写不好？
Can he write well?

A verb with a potential complement can take an object, but the degree complement cannot be followed by the object of the verb.

The potential complement:

Tā xiěbùhǎo Hànzì.
他写不好汉字。
He can't write characters well.

The complement of degree:

Tā xiě de bù hǎo Hànzì. (ungrammatical) (The complement of degree can't take an object.)
他写得不好汉字。
He does not write characters well.

Tā xiě Hànzì xiě de bù hǎo. (grammatical)
他写汉字写得不好。
He writes characters badly.

The complement of degree can be used in bǎ 把-sentences, while the potential complement can't.

Tā bǎ dìtú guà de gāogāode.
他把地图挂得高高的。
He hung the map high up.

IV. The potential complement in idiomatic expressions

-de 得, expressing whether “it is O.K. to...”, is commonly used in its negative form; the verb preceding it must be a monosyllabic verb. -de 得 when used as a complement has unique positive and negative forms. For example:

positive: chīde 吃得 okay to eat/can be eaten/edible
negative: chībùde 吃不得 not okay to eat/cannot be eaten/not edible

Zhèi zhǒng mógu chīde, nèizhǒng chībùde.
这种蘑菇 (mógu, mushroom) 吃得 ，那种吃不得。
This kind of mushroom is edible, the other isn't.

Zhèi zhāng huàr jiànbùde guāng.
这张画儿见不得光。
This painting cannot/is not okay to be exposed to sunlight.

Tā zuò de shì jiànbùde rén.
他做的事见不得人。
His doings cannot be made known/are not okay to be presented (to people).

Liǎo 了 is a verb often used as a potential complement, expressing whether or not an action can be carried on, or whether an action can achieve a positive result---due to the ability or circumstances of the person acting. However, liǎo matches only certain verbs such as zuò 做, gàn 干, bàn 办, qù 去, lái 来, zǒu 走, dào 到, ná 拿, bān 搬, chī 吃, hē 喝, xué 学, xiě 写, kàn 看, tīng 听, shuō 说, etc. Below are a few examples.

Zhèi zhǒng gōngzuò tā zuòdeliǎo ma?
这种工作他做得了吗？
Can he do this kind of work?

Míngtiān wǒ hěn máng, qùbùliǎo.
明天我很忙，去不了。
I 'll be busy tomorrow. I cannot go.

Dōngxi tài duō le, nǐ yí ge rén nádeliǎo ma?
东西太多了，你一个人拿得了吗？
There are so many things. Can you carry them alone?

Wǒ chībùliǎo zhème duō fàn.
我吃不了这么多饭。
I cannot eat so much food.

Wǒ-de péngyǒu dāngzhōng méi yǒu yí ge rén xiědeliǎo zhème piàoliang de Hànzì.
我的朋友当中没有一个人写得了这么漂亮的汉字。
None of my friends can write such beautiful characters.

tándelái 谈得来 can get along with tánbùlái 谈不来 cannot get along with

Nǐ gēn Xiǎo Wáng tándelái tánbùlái?
你跟小王谈得来谈不来？
Can you and Xiao Wang get along with each other?

qǐ 起: affordability

Jìnkǒu de dōngxi tài guì le, wǒ mǎibùqǐ.
进口的东西太贵了，我买不起。
Imported things are too expensive. I can't afford them.

duìdeqǐ 对得起 not let (someone) down duìbuqǐ 对不起 let (someone) down; sorry

Nǐ duìdeqǐ fùmǔ ma?
你对得起父母吗？
Aren't you letting your parents down?

Bǎ “把” Construction

What is the bǎ 把 construction?

When to use the bǎ 把 construction

The object after bǎ 把

The elements after the predicate verb

S + bǎ 把 + O + V + resultative complement (+ le 了)

S + bǎ 把 + O + V + directional complement (+ le 了)

+ zài 在 + noun 2 (+ le 了)

+ gěi 给 + indirect object (+ le 了)

+ chéng 成/zuò 作 + indirect object (+ le 了)

+ le 了

+ noun 2 /pronoun + (le 了)

+ de 的 + complement of degree

+ (yī 一) + reduplicated verb

+ (-le 了) + complement of frequency + (le 了)

+ (-le 了) + complement of quantity + (le 了)

+ zhe 着

(–le 了) + durational complement + (le 了)

Modal verbs and adverbials in bǎ 把 sentences.

Verbs which may not be used as the predicate verb in a bǎ 把 sentence.

Potential complements cannot be used in the bǎ 把 construction

The structure of bǎ 把 sentences

I. What is the bǎ 把 construction?

As a coverb, bǎ 把 has no equivalent in English. It is simply a means by which the direct object is displaced to a position before the verb. Bǎ 把 construction is a 'disposal form ' (Wang Li 1947: 160ff.) It states “how a person is handled, manipulated or dealt with; how something is disposed of; or how an affair is concluded” (translation by Charles N. Li 1974: 200-201). A sentence with the bǎ 把 construction follows the basic pattern below.

subject bǎ 把 + direct object verb + complementary element

Lǐ Míng bǎ nǐ-de zìdiǎn názǒu le.
李明 把你的字典 拿走了。
Ming Li has taken your dictionary away.

subject bǎ 把 + direct object verb + complementary element

Bǎ shū dǎkāi.
把书 打开。
Open the book.

II. When to use the bǎ 把 construction

Since the bǎ 把 construction is used to point out what action has been carried out upon a particular object and how the object has consequently been disposed of, it is usually used when stating what one has done to something, what one has accomplished (the verb must take an object) or what has happened to something as a result of an action. It is also often used in imperative sentences such as commands, requests or instructions asking someone to move, change, deal with, handle or manipulate something and affect it in a specific way. The following are a few examples.

Wǒ bǎ nǐ-de mén xiūhǎo le.
我把你的门修好了。
I fixed your door.

Wǒ bǎ jīntiān de zuòyè zuòwǎn le.
我把今天的作业做完了。
I finished today 's homework.

Wáng xiānsheng bǎ tā-de chē màigěi wǒ le.
王先生把他的车卖给我了。
Mr. Wang sold his car to me.

Qǐng nǐ bǎ lājī náchūqu.
请你把垃圾拿出去。
Please take out the garbage.

Bǎ chuānghu dǎkāi yìdiǎnr, hǎo bù hǎo?
把窗户打开一点儿，好不好？
Open the window a little bit, all right?

There are two conditions under which the bǎ 把 constructions is more likely to be used. First, “the more prominent the referent of the direct object is, the more appropriate it is to use a bǎ 把 noun phrase to refer to it.” Second, “the more the verb elaborates or specifies how the direct object is being handled or dealt with, the more appropriate it is to use bǎ 把 (Charles Li 1981:483-484).” The bǎ 把 construction is also sometimes structurally required.

III. The object after bǎ

The object following bǎ 把 is the recipient of the action and it must be a definite or specific thing or person or a known entity. It usually has been mentioned earlier or is known to those engaged in the discourse, otherwise the listener would not understand which thing or person the speaker is talking about.

Tā bǎ nèi liàng jiù chē mài le.
她把那辆旧车卖了。
She sold that old car.

'That old car ' is one that is known to both parties in the discourse.

Jīntiān wǒ bù xiǎoxīn bǎ yí ge nánde zhuàngdǎo le.
今天我不小心把一个男的撞倒了。
Today I knocked down a man by accident.

'A man ' here refers to a specific one, the one that 'I ' knocked down.

Qǐng bǎ táng dìgěi wǒ.
请把糖递给我。
Please pass me the sugar.

'Sugar ' here refers to something in the presence of both parties. It is something that they both can see.

The elements after the predicate verb

S + bǎ 把 + O + V + resultative complement (+ le 了)

S + bǎ 把 + O + V + directional complement (+ le 了)

+ zài 在 + noun 2 (+ le 了)

+ gěi 给 + indirect object (+ le 了)

+ chéng 成/zuò 作 + indirect object (+ le 了)

+ le 了

+ noun 2 /pronoun + (le 了)

+ de 的 + complement of degree

+ (yī 一) + reduplicated verb

+ (-le 了) + complement of frequency + (le 了)

+ (-le 了) + complement of quantity + (le 了)

+ zhe 着

(–le 了) + durational complement + (le 了)

IV. The elements after the predicate verb

The predicate verb, except for some disyllabic verbs with built-in resultative components such as qǔxiāo 取消(to cancel) and suōxiǎo 缩小 (to reduce), must take a complementary element such as a complement, a locative phrase, an indirect object, and so on. The following shows what elements usually follow the verb.

RESULTATIVE + resultative complement (+ le 了) Stating what result has been accomplished or is anticipated

Wǒmen bǎ Zhōngwén zuòyè zuòwán le.
我们把中文作业做完了。
We have finished our Chinese homework.

Qǐng bǎ mén dǎkāi.
请把门打开。
Please open the door.

Zhèi liǎng tiān kě bǎ wǒmen mánghuài le.
这两天可把我们忙坏了。
We were terribly busy the last few days.

Note 1: Though stative verbs such as huài 坏, tòu 透, sǐ 死 show degree when placed after a stative verb or verb of mental activity, they are considered complements of result due to the structure.)

Note 2: Since the function of the bǎ 把 sentence is to show what has happened to the direct object as a result of the action, the predicate verb and its complement must comment on the direct object, not on the subject or any other element. There is still a verb-object relationship even though the object has been displaced to a position before the verb. Such a relationship can be seen in Sentences 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 above.

VERB + COMPLEMENT + OBJECT

Zuòwán 做完 | Zhōngwén zuòyè 中文作业
Dǎkāi 打开 | mén 门
Mánghuài 忙坏 | wǒ 我

Wǒ bǎ fàn chīwán le. (Grammatical)
我把饭吃完了。
I finished the meal/food.

This sentence shows what has happened to the food---it has been finished.

Wǒ bǎ fàn chībǎo le. (Ungrammatical)
我把饭吃饱了。 (doesn't make sense)

The verb takes a resultative complement bǎo 饱 'full', which comments on the subject, wǒ 我 'I', instead of the object fàn 饭 'food '.Since 'full' is not what has happened to the 'food ' but rather how 'I' has been affected as a result of 'eating', this sentence is not grammatical. It should be changed to 'Wǒ chībǎo le. 我吃饱了' I'm full.

2. DIRECTIONAL

+ directional complement (+ le 了) Stating in which direction the object has been moved or is anticipated to move.

Zuótiān tā bǎ háizi cóng Běijīng dàilai le.
昨天她把孩子从北京带来了。
She brought her child here from Beijing yesterday.

Qǐng bǎ nǐ-de zìxíngchē bānchūqu.
请把你的自行车搬出去。
Please move out your bicycle.

Tā bǎ yǐzi bāndào lóushàng qu le.
他把椅子搬到楼上去了。
He moved the chair upstairs.

Qǐng nǐ bǎ Kělè cóng bīngxiāng-li náchūlai.
请你把可乐从冰箱里拿出来。
Please take the Coke out of the refrigerator.

Note: The coverb cóng 从 with a locative word or phrase points out the object 's original place before its displacement. The cóng 从 phrase must be placed after the object and before the verb. It is an adverbial. See examples 2.1 and 2.4. Dào 到 with a locative word or phrase introduces the new location to which the object has been moved. The dào 到 phrase must be placed after the verb. See 2.3. It is a verb complement. The dào 到 phrase must follow the verb immediately. When cóng 从 and dào 到 phrases are used, bǎ 把 construction must be used. The following example is ungrammatical.

Tā bān yǐzi dào lóushàng qù le.
他搬椅子到楼上去了。
(He moved the chair upstairs.)

To point out the original location of the object, follow this pattern:

subj. + bǎ 把 + obj. + cóng 从 + locative word/phrase + verb + directional complement + (le了)

To point out the new location to which the object has been moved, follow this pattern:

subject + bǎ 把 + object + verb + dào 到 + locative word/phrase + (lái 来/ qù 去) + (le 了)

To point out both the original place and the destination, follow this pattern:

subject + bǎ 把 + object + cóng 从 + locative word/phrase + verb + dào 到 + locative word/phrase + ( lái 来/qù 去)+( le了)

3. LOCATIONAL

+ zài 在 + noun 2 (+ le 了) Stating where the object ends up or where it is anticipated to end up as a result of the action.

Tā bǎ yǔsǎn wàngzài túshūguǎn le.
他把雨伞忘在图书馆了。
He left the/his umbrella in the library.

Bǎ dāozi fàngzài yòubiān.
把刀子放在右边。
Put the knife on the right.

Notē: The post-verbal locative phrase indicates where an object ends up as a result of an action. When a post-verbal locative phrase is used, the sentence usually uses the b[a construction. How does a pre-verbal locative phrase differ from a post-verbal one in its role in the sentence? Compare the following two sentences.

Bǎ dāozi fàngzài yòubian.
把刀子放在右边。
Put the knife on the right.

Qǐng zài yòubiān fàng yì bǎ dāozi.
请在右边放一把刀子。
Please put a knife on the right.

In Sentence 3A, the object, dāozi 刀子, is one that both the speaker and the listener know, not a generic reference. It may be right in front of them. In Sentence 3B, it is not important which knife is to be placed on the right. The speaker only wants a knife to be placed on the right. The knife may not be in the presence of the speaker and the listener. The example shows that ‘the more prominent the referent of the direct object is the more appropriate it is to use a bǎ noun phrase to refer to it '(Charles Li 1981: 484). Below are examples of common errors associated with the locative phrase in this type of bǎ 把 sentences.

Tā wàng yǔsǎn zài túshūguǎn le. (Ungrammatical)
他忘雨伞在图书馆了。
(He left his umbrella in the library.)

The locative phrase must follow the verb immediately and the sentence must use the bǎ 把 construction. The correct sentence is:

Tā bǎ yǔsǎn wàngzài túshūguǎn le. (Grammatical)
他把雨伞忘在图书馆了。
(He left his umbrella in the library.)

Wǒ bǎ zuòyè xiězài zhǐ shàng. (Grammatical)
我把作业写在纸上。
I wrote my homework on the paper.

The post-verbal locative phrase indicates where an object ends up as a result of the action.

Wǒ bǎ zuòyè xiězài sùshè. (Ungrammatical)
我把作业写在宿舍
(I wrote my homework in the dormitory.)

The locative phrase may not refer to the location of the subject or other elements. The correct sentence should be:

Wǒ zài sùshè xiě zuòyè. (Grammatical)
我在宿舍写作业。
I wrote my homework in the dormitory.

4. DATIVE

+ gěi 给 + indirect object (+ le 了) Pointing out the recipient of the direct object as a result of the action.

Wǒ bǎ zuòyè jiāogěi lǎoshī le.
我把作业交给老师了。
I have turned in my homework to the teacher.

Bǎ zhèxiē shū màigěi jiù shūdiàn ba.
把这些书卖给旧书店吧。
Let 's sell these books to the used-book store.

Tā bǎ nèi jiàn hóng máoyī sònggěi wǒ le.
她把那件红毛衣送给我了。
She gave that red sweater to me.

Note 1: If a sentence is to state that the object has been passed to a new recipient, the predicate verb must take gěi 给 or a similar verb capable of introducing the recipient of the object. The Bǎ 把 construction is required in such a sentence. See 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3. Only verbs that imply 'transfer' or 'transaction', such as jiāo 交, sòng 送, mài 卖, jiè 借, huán 还, jì 寄, dài 带, chuán 传, etc. can be used with gěi 给 and an indirect object in a bǎ 把 sentence. Other verbs taking gěi 给 may not be used in a bǎ 把 sentence.

Wǒ bǎ xìn xiěgěi wǒ péngyou le. (Ungrammatical)
我把信写给我朋友了。
(I wrote the letter to my friend.)

If the direct object is not definite, specific or known to the listener, and the speaker intends to simply point out what it is that has been transferred or to narrate what someone has done as one of the events that has happened, bǎ 把 may not be necessary.

Wǒ sònggěi Xiǎo Wáng yì zhī bǐ.
我送给小王一支笔。
I gave Young Wang a pen.

If the direct object is definite, specific or something that the listener knows or understands, bǎ 把 construction must be used.

Wǒ sònggěi Xiǎo Wáng nàxiē bǐ le. (Ungrammatical)
我送给小王那些笔了。
(I gave those pens to Young Wang.)

5. TRANSFORMATIONAL/JUDGMENTAL

+ chéng 成 / zuò 作 + indirect object (+ le 了) Stating how the object has been or is anticipated to be changed, regarded, compared or judged.

Qǐng nǐ bǎ zhèi ge gùshi fānyìchéng Yīngwén.
请你把这个故事翻译成英文。
Please translate this story into English.

Tā bǎ wǒ dāngzuò zìjǐ-de háizi.
她把我当作自己的孩子。
She regards me as her own child.

Note: Verbs such as chéng 成, wéi 为, zuò 作 or zuò 做 following the predicate verb take an object to indicate how the direct object has been transformed, regarded, compared, labeled, judged and so on. They all require the bǎ 把 construction. A common error students tend to make is to forget to use the bǎ 把 construction.

Qǐng nǐ fānyì zhèi gè gùshì chéng Yīngwén. (Ungrammatical)
请你翻译这个故事成英文。
(Please translate this story into English.)

6. ACCOMPLISHED FACT

+ le 了 Stating what has happened to the object or how one anticipates it to be dealt with.

Tā bǎ nèi ge hóng píngguǒ chī le.
他把那个红苹果吃了。
He ate the red apple.

Bié bǎ yàoshi diū le.
别把钥匙丢了。
Don't lose the key.

Note: The modal particle le here has the underlying notion of liǎo 了 'to finish' (Po-Ching Yip and Don Rimmington 2004: p. 200). Only a special class of verbs can take nothing but le in bǎ 把 sentences. These are verbs with a built-in terminal point. They are mostly verbs indicating actions which finish as soon as they begin, such as diū 丢(lose), wàng 忘(forget), rēng 扔 (throw away), sī 撕(tear up), mǒ 抹 (wipe off), shuā i摔 (break), hē 喝(drink), qǔxiāo 取消 (abolish), huán 还(return), and so on.

7. DATIVE

+ noun 2 / pronoun + (le 了) Specifying the recipient of the object as the result of the action.

Wǒ yǐjīng bǎ zìxíngchē gěi Lǎo Wáng le.????????????????
我已经把自行车给老王了。
I have already given the bicycle to Old Wang.

Tā bǎ jiù yīfu sòng rén le.
她把旧衣服送人了。
She gave away her old clothes.

Wǒ bù xiǎng bǎ zhè jiàn shì gàosù tā.
我不想把这件事告诉她。
I don't want to tell her about it.

Tā bǎ shèng fàn wèi gǒu le.
她把剩饭喂狗了。
She fed the dog with the leftover food.

Wǒ bǎ shuǐ jiāo huār le.
我把水浇花儿了。
I water the plant with the water.

Note: Not all verbs can take these elements in bǎ 把 sentences. Only verbs such as gěi 给, sòng 送, gàosù 告诉, wèi 喂, jiāo 浇, tōngzhī 通知, zhuǎngào 转告 and so on can take a noun or pronoun as the indirect object to point out the recipient of the direct object in bǎ 把 sentences. These verbs usually imply transferring or passing something to someone else.

8. EVALUATIVE/DESCRIPTIVE

+ de 的 + complement of degree Specify the degree or extent to which the object has been affected as a result of the action.

Lǎoshī bǎ wèntí jiěshi de hěn qīngchu.
老师把问题解释得很清楚。
The teacher has explained the question very clearly.

Gōngzuò hé jiāwù bǎ tā lèi de bìngdǎo le.
工作和家务把她累得病倒了。
Work and household chores have exhausted her so much that she has fallen ill.

Note: It is important to remember that the complement comments on the object, not the subject. See the following examples.

Wǒmen bǎ diànyǐng kànde hěn gāoxìng. (Ungrammatical)
我们把电影看得很高兴。
(We enjoyed the film very much.)

Note that hěn gāoxìng 很高兴 in 8A comments on how the subject feels, not on to what extent the object has been affected. Therefore, this sentence should not use the bǎ 把 construction. The correct sentence should be:

Wǒmen kàn diànyǐng kànde hěn gāoxìng. (Grammatical)
我们看电影看得很高兴。
We enjoyed the film very much.

9. BRIEF DURATIONAL

+ (yī 一) + reduplicated verb Stating how one anticipates the object will be dealt with. Completed action uses –le 了 instead of yī 一. The sentence may need to take a clause.

Qǐng bǎ zhèi kài biǎo xiūxiu.
请把这块表修修。(same in meaning as + yī 一 + reduplicated verb)
Please fix this watch.

Qǐng bǎ zhèi kài biǎo xiū yi xiū.
请把这块表修一修。(same in meaning as + reduplicated verb)
Please fix this watch.

Tā bǎ zhèi kài biǎo xiū-le xiū, xiànzài yòu néng zǒu le.
她把这块表修了修, 现在又能走了。(-le 了 + verb)
She fixed the watch a little bit and now it's working again.

Note: Monosyllabic verbs when reduplicated can take yī 一 or le 了 inbetween, as in 9.2 and 9.3. Disyllabic verbs when reduplicated may not do the same. So it would be wrong to say jiěshì yi jiěshì 解释一解释 'explain' or jiěshì le jiěshì 解释了解释.

10. FREQUENCY

+ (-le 了) + complement of frequency + (le 了) Specifying how many times the object has been or is to be dealt with.

Tā bǎ zhèi ge zì chāo-le shí biàn, háishì jìbúzhù.
她把这个字抄了十遍，还是记不住。
She copied this character ten times, but she still can't remember it.

Wǒmen yǐngjīng bǎ zhèi ge wèntí tǎolùn-le sān cì le.
我们已经把这个问题讨论了三次了。
We have already discussed this issue three times up to now.

Bǎ zhè piān kèwén niàn sān biàn.
把这篇课文念三遍。
Read the text aloud three times.

Bǎ zuòyè jiǎnchá yíxià.
把作业检查一下。
Check your homework.

Note: Yíxià 一下(a little bit) is a special verbal measure word. It is generally used to soften the tone in imperative sentences. It is not used to indicate the frequency of an action. So it is wrong to say, 'bǎ zuòyè jiǎnchá liǎng xià' 把作业检查两下(check the homework twice).

11. QUANTITY

+ (-le 了) + complement of quantity + (le 了) Specifying the quantity that has been or will be added to or removed from the object as a result of the action.

Shāngdiàn bǎ diànshì de jiàgé jiàngdī-le yí bàn.
商店把电视的价格降低了一半。
Stores have lowered the price of televisions by half.

Wǒmen yídìng yào bǎ chǎnliàng tígāo-le bǎi fēn zhī èr.
我们一定要把产量提高百分之二。
We must increase the output by two percent.

Tā yǐjīng bǎ cài qiē-le yí bān le.
他已经把菜切了一半了。
He has already cut half of the vegetables up to now.

12. CONTINUOUS STATE

+ zhe 着 Stating how the object has been dealt with or how one anticipates it will be dealt with.

Jīntiān yào xià yǔ, bǎ sǎn dàizhe.
今天要下雨，把伞带着。
it's going to rain. Take the umbrella (with you.)

Nǐ shuìjiào zěnme hái bǎ dēng kāizhe? Tài fèi diàn le.
你睡觉怎么还把灯开着？太费电了！
Why do you sleep with the light on? What a waste of electricity?

13. DURATIONAL

(–le 了) + durational complement + (le 了) Stating how long the object has been being dealt with as a result of the action or how long one anticipates it will be being dealt with.

Tāmen bǎ zhèi ge wèntí yánjiū-le wǔ nián duō.
他们把这个问题研究了五年多。
They studied this problem for over five years.

Wǒ yǐjīng bǎ ròu kǎo-le wǔ fēnzhōng le. Zài kǎo jiù gāi kǎohú le.
我已经把肉烤了五分钟了，再烤就该煳了。
I have grilled the meat for five minutes so far. If I continue, I will burn it.

Bǎ shuǐ rè wǔ fēnzhōng.
把水热五分钟。
Heat the water for five minutes.

Wǒ bǎ miàntiáo zhǔ-le yì huǐr, ránhòu cái wàng lǐ fàng cài.
我把面条煮了一会儿，然后才往里放菜。
I boiled the noodles for a little while before putting vegetables in it.

Note: Only verbs that imply certain forms of processing, such as shāo 烧 (to heat), kǎo 烤 (to bake/to roast), rè 热 (to heat). zhǔ 煮 (to boil), lěngquè 冷却 (to cool off), can take a durational complement in bǎ sentences. This is why the following example is ungrammatical.

Wǒ bǎ shū kàn-le sān ge xiǎoshí. (Ungrammatical)
我把书看了三个小时。
(I read the book for three hours.)

If the speaker intends to state how long the action kàn 看‘reading ' lasted, the bǎ construction should not be used.

Wǒ kàn shū kàn-le sān gè xiǎoshí. (Grammatical)
我看书看了三个小时。
I read the book for three hours.

V. Modal verbs and adverbials in bǎ 把 sentences.

In a bǎ 把 sentence, modal verbs and adverbs are usually placed before the coverb bǎ 把. Adverbs denoting inclusion or scope such as dōu都or quán全are placed before bǎ 把 if they are about the subject or after the object before the predicate verb if they are about the object. An adverb modifying the verb can be placed before bǎ 把 or before the verb.

Modal verbs, Optative verbs Dispositional verbs | néng 能 bìxū 必须 kěn 肯 | kěyǐ 可以 gǎn 敢 děi 得 | nénggòu 能够 xiǎng 想 xǐhuan 喜欢 | huì 会 yào 要 ài 爱 | yīnggāi 应该 yuànyì 愿意 etc.
Adverbs | bù 不 zài 再 chángcháng 常常 | méi 没 yòu 又 yǐjīng 已经 | jiù 就 hái 还 yídìng 一定 | cái 才 biàn 便 etc. | zhǐ 只 zǒngshì 总是 ----

Tā méi bǎ chē mài gěi tā-de péngyou.
他没把车卖给他的朋友。
He did not sell his car to his friend.

Wǒ bù xiǎng bǎ zhè jiàn shì gàosù tā.
我不想把这件事告诉她。
I don't want to tell her about it.

Wǒmen dōu bǎ Zhōngwén zuòyè zuòwán le.
我们都把中文作业做完了。
We have all finished our Chinese homework.

Wǒmen bǎ Zhōngwén zuòyè dōu zuòwán le.
我们把中文作业都做完了。
We have finished all of our Chinese homework.

Tā bǎ kǎoshì juàn fēicháng rènzhēn de jiǎnchá-le liǎng biàn.
他把考试卷非常认真地检查了两遍。
He very carefully checked the test paper twice.

Tā rèqíng de bǎ wǒmen ràng jìn wūzili.
她热情地把我们让进屋子里。
She warmly ushered us into the room.

Wǒ bǎ mén yòng lì tuī-le jǐ xiàr, háishì méi yǒu tuīkāi.
我把门用力推了几下儿，还是没有推开。
I pushed the door hard a few times, but I still couldn't open it.

VI. Verbs which may not be used as the predicate verb in a bǎ 把 sentence.

modal verbs:

some modal verbs denoting wish, desire or aspiration (表示意愿的):

yào 要 wish/want (to) | xiǎng 想 wish (to) | yuànyì 愿意 willing (to)
kěn 肯 willing (to) | gǎn 敢 dare (to) |

modal verbs denoting reasoning (表示对情理、事理判断的):

yīnggāi 应该 ought to | yīngdāng 应当 ought to | yīng 应 ought to
gāi 该 ought to | děi 得 have to/must |

modal verbs denoting judgement of possibilities (表示对主客观条件判断的):

néng 能 an/be able to | kěyǐ 可以 can | nénggòu 能够 can

modal verbs denoting permission (表示准许、允许的):

néng 能 can | kě 可 may | kěyǐ 可以 may
zhǔn 准 allow/permit | xǔ 许 allow/permit | bùdé 不得 may not

modal verbs denoting evaluation/assessment (表示评价的):

pèi 配 be worthy of | zhídé 值得 deserve

modal verbs denoting possibility/probability (表示可能的):

kěnéng 可能 possible | huì 会 be likely/sure to | yào 要 be about to
děi 得 have to/must | néng 能 can |

intransitive verbs (不及物动词 verbs which do not take objects)

lǚxíng 旅行 to travel | hézuò 合作 to cooperate | bìyè 毕业 to graduate
xiūxi 休息 to rest | jiéhūn 结婚 to marry | etc.

some verbs of cognition, mentality or the senses (表示认知、心理活动或感官知觉的)

zhīdào 知道 know | tóngyì 同意 agree | juéde 觉得 feel
xīwàng 希望 to hope | yāoqiú 要求 to request | kànjiàn 看见 see
tīngjiàn 听见 hear | etc. |

some verbs of direction (表示动作方向的)

lái 来 to come | shàng 上 go up | jìn 进 to enter
qù 去 to go | xià 下 go down | chū 出 to exit
huí 回 to return | dào 到 arrive; go to | guò 过 to cross
qǐ 起 to rise | etc. |

some verbs of judgement, existence or state and ownership (表示判断 、存在和领有的)

shì 是 to be | yǒu 有 to have | xiàng 象 resemble
zài 在t o be at... | děngyú 等于 equal to | chéngwéi 成为 to become
jiào 叫 be called | xìng 姓 be surnamed | etc.

VII. The potential complement cannot be used in the bǎ 把 construction

The potential complement is used for possibility, not disposal. Therefore, it does not occur in the bǎ 把 construction.

Nǐ bǎ gōngzuò zuòdewán.
你把工作做得完。(ungrammatical)
(You can finish the work.)

VIII. The structure of bǎ 把 sentences

➀ | ➁ | ➂ | ➃ | ➄ | ➅ | ➆
subject | adverbial | bǎ | object | adverbial | predicate | consequential elements
李明 Lǐ Míng | 已经 yǐjīng | 把 bǎ | 你的书 nǐ-de shū | 都 dōu | 拿 ná | 走了。 zǒu le.
subject | adverbial | bǎ | object | adverbial | predicate | consequential elements

↑

n./n. 

eq.; 

p. pron.

↑

adv.;

adj. + (de 地); 

v. phrase;

cover + n.

↑
coverb

↑

n./n. eq.;

p. pron.

↑

adv.; 

adj. +(de 地); 

v. phrase;

cover+n.

↑

v.;

stative v.

↑

complement+(locative phrase/N 2) + (le了);

reduplicated verb or its variations; 

le 了;

noun 2 + le 了

zhe 着

Notes:

n. = noun

n. eq. = noun equivalent, etc.

p.pron. = personal pronoun, such as wǒ 我, nǐ 你, tā 他, wǒmen 我们, nǐmen 你们, tāmen 他们, etc.

adv. = adverb, such as mǎshàng 马上, méi 没, bù 不, etc.

adj. = adjective.
(e.g.
kuài bǎ 快把 + noun + verb + ...;
bǎ 把 + noun + zǎodiǎnr 早点儿 + verb + ...;
rènzhēn de bǎ 认真地把 + noun + verb + ...;
bǎ 把 + noun + rènzhēn de 认真地 + verb + ...;
etc.)

v. = verb

N 2 = Noun 2 (usually the indirect object)

The Complement Of Degree

I. What is the complement of degree?

II. The structure of the complement of degree

III. The negative forms

IV. The question forms

V. When to use the complement of degree?

VI. Complement of degree vs. potential complement

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