Adverbs 就 and 才 with time words and numbers

The adverbs 就 jiù and 才 cái serve many functions in sentences, and this section will introduce two particular usages. 就 jiù and 才 cái should be placed before verbs in sentences. The use of 就 jiù or 才 cái expresses the notion that the timing of an event is earlier or later than expected. Let us look at how these adverbs are used in the following sentences.

小 丁 今 天 八 点 睡 觉 了。
Xiăodīng jīntiān bā diăn shuìjiàole
Xiao Ding went to bed at eight o’clock.

The above sentence relates the fact that the action of going to sleep happened at eight o’clock, but by using the adverb 就 jiù, the sentence becomes:

小 丁 今 天 八 点 就 睡 觉 了。
Xiăodīng jīntiān bā diăn jiù shuìjiàole
Xiao Ding went to bed (as early as) eight o’clock.

As you can see, the adverb 就 jiù is placed before the verb 睡 shuì to sleep in the above sentence. 就 jiù is used to comment on the preceding time expression 八点 bā diăn eight o’clock, and indicates that it was earlier than the speaker expected. In other words, the speaker is expecting Xiao Ding to go to sleep after eight o’clock.

小 丁 今 天 八 点 才 睡 觉。
Xiăodīng jīntiān bā diăn cái shuìjiào
Xiao Ding only went to bed at eight o’clock. (Lit Xiao Ding went to bed as late as eight o’clock.)

The adverb 才cái implies “only then”. In other words, the speaker is expecting Xiao Ding to go to sleep before eight o’clock. Notice that in addition to the adverb 就 jiù being replaced by 才 cái, the end of sentence particle 了 le has also disappeared in the above sentence.

就 jiù or 才cái can also be used to express a view on a number that is smaller or bigger than expected. Let us see the effect that the adverbs 就 jiù and 才 cái have on the following sentences.

他 用 两 个 小 时 作 了 一顿 中 国
tā yòng liăng ge xiăoshí zhuò le yídùn zhōngguó cài.
He took two hours to cook a Chinese meal. (Lit He used two hours….)

The adverbs 就 jiù and 才 cái are not used in the above sentence. The sentence only states the fact that it has taken him two hours to cook a Chinese meal. However, if 就 jiù is added to the above sentence, it becomes:

他 用 两 个 小 时 就 作 了 一顿 中 国 菜。
tā yòng liăng ge xiăoshí jiù zhuò le yídùn zhōngguó cài.
It only took him two hours to cook a Chinese meal. (Lit It took him as little as two hours to cook a Chinese meal.)

就 jiù is used to comment on the preceding period of time 两个小时 liăng ge xiăoshí two hours. The speaker thinks that two hours is a short length of time. However, if 才cái is used instead, as demonstrated below, the sentence has a different implication, although the meaning is similar.

他 用 两 个 小 时 才 作 了 一顿 中 国 菜。
tā yòng liăng ge xiăoshí cái zhuò le yídùn zhōngguó cài.
He only finished cooking a Chinese meal after two hours. (Lit It took him as long as two hours to cook a Chinese meal.)

By using the adverb才cái in the above sentence, the speaker shows that he thinks that the preceding two hour period of time is of short length. The sentence implies that it took him as long as two hours to cook the meal.

When using the adverbs 就 jiù and 才 cái, one must remember the following points.

就 jiù and 才 cái must be placed before verbs

就 jiù or 才 cái can be used to comment on preceding time words and number words which are earlier and smaller or later and larger than expected.

The end of sentence particle 了 le is not used when 才 cái is used.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

Where should I place 就 in a sentence?

How do I use 就 to imply an action takes place earlier than I have expected?

Can 就 be used to imply anything else apart from “earlier than expected”?

What are the implications if 才 is used in sentences?

Can 就 be used for other purposes?

Can 就 and 才 be used in a same sentence?

Complement of degree 得

The complement degree construction is commonly used in the following situations.

To describe habitual actions. In other words, it is used to describe how someone normally does - something.

To describe the result of a particular action.

To describe the extent of a stative verb.

得 de is always preceded by a verb. It is important to remember that when you use a verb which is in the verb-object form, you must make sure that the verb (but not the object) is placed before 得 de. Because of this, a verb is often repeated in the first part of a complement of degree construction.

For instance:

s | v-o / topic | v | 得 | adv
我 | 游 泳 | 游 | 得 | 很 快。
wŏ | yóu yŏng | yóu | de | hěn kuài

I swim very quickly.

As you may know, 游泳 yóuyŏng is a verb in the V-O form, in other words, 泳 yŏng is a noun, so it should not be placed before 得 de. In spoken Chinese, people often omit the object of a V-O phrase when using the complement of degree construction. If the V-O (topic) is clear to listeners, the topic can be omitted.

For example:

s | v-o / topic | v | 得 | adv
我 | 游 | 得 | 很快。
wŏ | yóu | de | hěn kuài

I swim very quickly.

不 bú, the negation for the complement of degree is placed before adverbs.

For example:

s | v-o / topic | v | 得 | 不 adv
我 | 游泳 | 得 | 很 | 不 快。
wŏ | yóu yŏng | de | hěn | bú kuài

I don't swimming quickly.

Sometimes the verb in the topic is omitted to avoid repetition, and the object of the sentence can be placed before the verb.

For instance:

s | v-o / topic | v | 得 | adv
她 | 中 国 菜 | 作 | 得 | 真 不 错。
tā | zhōngguó cài | zuò | de | zhēn búcuò

She cooks Chinese meal really well.

The above examples describe habitual actions. When the complement of degree is used to describe the outcome of a particular completed action, a time word is needed, as a verb that is placed before 得 de cannot take the aspect particle 了 le.

For example:

tw | s | v-o / topic | v | 得 | adv
昨 天 晚 上 | 她 | 中 国 菜 | 作 | 得 | 真 不 错。
zuótiān wănshang | tā | zhōngguó cài | zuò | de | zhēn búcuò

She cooked a Chinese meal really well last night.

However, the aspect 了 le does not affect verbs that are used to describe the outcome of actions. In other words, verbs that are placed after 得de can still take aspect 了 le.

For example:

s | sv | 得 | degree
小 王 | 难 过 | 得 | 哭了 两 天。
Xiǎo Wáng | nánguò | de | kūle liǎngtiān

Xiao Wang was so sad that she cried for two days.

As you may have noticed, aspect 了 le is used for the verb to cry in the clause that describes the stative verb 难过 nánguò to be sad. The above example illustrates the fact that the 得 de construction can also be used to describe the extent of the stative verb. For instance,

s | sv | 得 | degree
中 文 | 难 | 得 | 我 们 都 不 想 学 了。
Zhōng wén | nán | de | wŏmén dōu bù xiăng xué le

Chinese is so difficult that we don’t want to learn it any more!

In the above sentence, the phrase 我们都不想学了 wŏmén dōu bù xiăng xué le we don’t want to learn it any more describes the extent of the difficulty.

s | sv | 得 | degree
我们 | 忙 | 得 | 每 天 都 不 睡 觉。
wŏmen | máng | de | měitiān dōu bù shuìjiào

We are so busy that we don’t even sleep a single day.

The phrase we don’t even sleep a single day describes the extent of the matter.

Assignments

Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers When do I use the 得 construction?

How many different ways can I form the 得 construction?

What is the negative form for the 得 construction?

Is the particle 了 for completed actions used in the 得 construction?

I find it difficult to distinguish the 得 construction from potential verb complements. How can I tell which is which?

Do I always need 得 to indicate the degree of complement?

Where can I place 一点儿 and 一些 in the 得 construction?

What is the difference between "请你说得慢一点儿." and "请你慢一点儿说."

The use of the adverbial 地

The adverbial particle 地 de is used to describe the way or manner in which an action is carried out. The descriptions can be adverbs or phrases with an adverbial function. Adverbs used to describe actions should be placed before 地 de as demonstrated below.

s 地 v o 他 认 真 地 在 纸 上 写 了 三 个 汉字。 tā rènzhēn de zài zhĭ shàng xiě le sānge hànzi

s | adv 地 | v | o
他 | 认 真 地 | 在 纸 上 写 了 | 三 个 汉字。
tā | rènzhēn de | zài zhĭ shàng xiě le | sānge hànzi

He very carefully wrote three Chinese characters on a piece of paper.

s adv 地 v o 他 一笔一笔 地 在 纸 上 写 了 三 个 汉字。 tā bĭ yì bĭ de zài zhĭ shàng xiě le sānge hànzi

s | adv 地 | v | o
他 | 一笔一笔 地 | 在 纸 上 写 了 | 三 个 汉字。
tā | bĭ yì bĭ de | zài zhĭ shàng xiě le | sānge hànzi

Stroke by stroke, he wrote three Chinese characters on a piece of paper.

As you may have noticed, the aspect 了 le is used in the above sentences. The adverb phrase一笔一笔地 yìbĭyìbĭ de stroke by stroke is placed before the co-verb phrase 在纸上 zài zhĭ shàng to be on paper.

The negation for the adverbial 地 sentences is 不 bù, which is placed before the adverbial phrases.

For example:

s | 不 adv 地 | v | o
他 | 不 认 真 地 | 在 纸 上 写 | 汉字。
tā | bù rènzhēn de | zài zhĭ shàng xiě | hànzi

He is carelessly writing Chinese characters on a piece of paper.

The negation 没 méi is used for denying that an action has taken place in the suggested manner. For example, if someone says "he wrote Chinese characters very carefully", you can deny it by saying:

s 没 adv 地 v o 他 没 认 真 地 在 纸 上 写 汉字。 tā méi rènzhēn de zài zhĭ shàng xiě hànzi He didn't write the Chinese characters carefully on the paper.

s | 没 adv 地 | v | o
他 | 没 认 真 地 | 在 纸 上 写 | 汉字。
tā | méi rènzhēn de | zài zhĭ shàng xiě | hànzi

The above Chinese sentence implies that he did write the Chinese characters, but he didn't do it in a careful manner.

A monosyllabic adverb is reduplicated when using the adverbial 地 de and the duplicated adverb is often pronounced in the first tone. For instance,

s adv 地 v o 他 慢 慢 地 在 纸 上 写 了 三 个 汉字。 tā ta mànmān de zài zhĭ shàng xiě le sānge hànzi

s | adv 地 | v | o
他 | 慢 慢 地 | 在 纸 上 写 了 | 三 个 汉字。
tā | ta mànmān de | zài zhĭ shàng xiě le | sānge hànzi

He slowly wrote three Chinese characters on a piece of paper.

The object 汉字 hànzi Chinese character in the above examples is attached to a number word and a measure word. When an object has nothing else attached to it, the adverbial 地 de can be omitted. For instance,

他 总 是 认 真 工 作。
tā zŏngshì rēnzhēn gōngzuò
He always works conscientiously.

小 王 总 是 努力 学习 中 文。
Xiăo Wáng zŏngshì nŭ lì xuéxí Zhōngwén
Xiao Wang always studies Chinese diligently.

The above sentences describe habitual actions. You might ask if the complement of degree construction can be used to describe the above situation. Of course you can, but it would be something like this.

小 王 学习 中 文 学习 得 很 好 。
Xiăo Wáng xuéxí Zhōngwén xuéxí de hěn hăo
Xiao Wang studies Chinese well.

You have to remember that the adverbial construction describes the manner in which an action is carried out, and the complement of degree construction focuses on the outcome of an action. As you can see from the above examples, 努力 nŭ lì diligent is used to describe the manner and 好 hăo well/excellently is a description on the outcome of Xiao Wang’s studying.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

When should I use the 地 construction?

How can I form a 地 sentence?

What should I be aware of when I use the 地 construction?

Do I always have to use 地, if I want to describe how an action is carried out?

Is the particle 了 for completed action used in 地 constructions?

Can verb complements be used in the 地 constructions?

How do I use 地 in the 把 and 被 sentences?

Are the 地 construction and the 得 constructions interchangeable? For instance A.今天上午他很快地吃完了饭 // B.今天上午他饭吃得很快 Do these two sentences have the same meaning?

Resultative Verb Complements

A resultative verb complement is formed by an action verb and a resultative word. A resultative word can be a verb or a stative verb describing the outcome of an action. The examples of resultative words are 完 wán to finish as in 写完 xiěwán to finish writing and 清楚 qīngchu to be clear as in 写清楚 xiěqīngchu to write it clearly. The formula of the resultative verb complements reflects the sequence of action. For instance 写完xiěwán finish writing in Chinese becomes writing finish, as finish is the outcome of the action of writing.

Some Chinese verbs are in the form of resultative verb complements such as:

看见 kànjiàn to see
听见 tīngjiàn to hear
找到 zhǎodào to find

When translating a sentence into Chinese it is important to ask yourself if the verb of the sentence is an action verb of or it is a verb with an outcome. The following list consists of the most commonly used resultative complements.

Verbs | Resultative complements | Examples |
看look; 听 listen | 见 to sense | 你听 见 她 唱 歌了 吗？ nĭ tīng jiàn tā chàng gē le ma Did you hear her singing?
看look; 听 listen | 懂 to understand | 我 没 看 懂 课 文。 wŏ méi kàn dŏng kèwén I didn’t understand the text (by reading through it)
放 put | 在 to be in/on/at | 书 放 在 桌 子 上 了。 shū fang zài zhuōzi shàng le The book has been put on the table.

送 give (sth. as a present); 拿take; 还return; 借 lend
给 to give (to a person)
词典 还 给 小 王 了。
cídiăn huángěi Xiăo Wáng le.
The dictionary has been returned to Xiao Wang.
我 的 书 借 给 丁 云 了。
wŏ de shū jiè gěi Dīng Yún le.
My book has been lent to Ding Yun.

送 give (as a present); 学study; 寄 send/post
到 to reach (to a place)
我 们 学 到 了第 三 课。
wŏmen xué dào le dì sān kè.
We have reached Lesson Three.
你的信 小 王 送 到 你 宿舍 去了。
nĭde xìn Xiăo Wáng song dào nĭ sùshù qù le.
Your letter has been delivered to your dormitory by Xiao Wang.

买 buy; 吃eat; 喝drink; 借 borrow
到 to obtain
我 没 买 到 地图。
wŏ méi măi dào dì tú
I didn’t get hold of the map.
我 没 吃 到 小 王 作 的 点心。
wŏ méi chī dào Xiăo Wáng zuò de diănxīn
I didn’t get to eat the Dianxin made by Xiao Wang.

学 study
会 to master
我 们 都 学 会 中 文了。
wŏmen dōu xué huì
Zhōngwén le
We have all mastered Chinese.

送 give (as a present); 拿 take | 走 to be away | 礼物 送 走 了。 lĭ wù song zŏu le The presents have been delivered.

拿 to take; 记 to remember
住 to be fixed
记住 学 过 的 生 词。
jì zhù xué guò de shēngcí
Remember the words that (you) have learned. (It implies that you should fix the words into your memory.
One could also say
我 记了，可 是 没 记住。
wŏ jì le kěshì méi jì zhù
I tried, but I failed to remember)

作 do; 写 write; 学 study | 好 to be satisfactory | 我 作 好 饭 了。 wŏ zuò hăo fàn le I have finished cooking the meal.

作 do; 写 write; 说 say
错 to be wrong
你说 错了。
nĭ shuō cuò le
You’ve said it wrong.
我 没 作 错。
wŏ méi zuò cuò
I didn’t do it wrong.

作 do; 写 write; 说 say | 对 to be right

写 write; 说 say
清楚 to be clear
你没 说 清 楚。
nĭ méi shuō qīngchu
You didn’t say it clearly.
我 写 清 楚 了。
wŏ xiě qīngchu le
I’ve written it clearly.

When two objects (both direct and indirect) are involved in a sentence, the direct object is often placed at the beginning of the sentence. For example

书 我 借 给 小 王 了。
shū wǒ jiè gěi Xiǎo Wáng le
I’ve lent the book to Xiao Wang.

你的 衬 衫 我 拿 到 你 的 卧 室 去 了。
nǐ de chènshān wǒ ná dào nǐ de wòshì qù le
I’ve taken your shirt to your bedroom.

Both the direct objects of the sentences above,书 shū book and 你的衬衫 nǐ de chènshān your shirt are placed at the beginning of the sentence. The resultative word 给 gěi to is followed by a person: 小王 Xiǎo Wáng and the resultative word 到 dào to is followed by a place: 你的卧室nǐ de wòshì your bedroom.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

What are resultative complements?

When should I use resultative verb complements in sentences?

Where does a resultative verb complement go in a sentence?

Where does a resultative verb complement go if a sentence has a direct and indirect object?

Can the particle "了" for completed action be used with resultative verb complements?

What are the commonly used resultative complements?

The use of 从 and 离

从 cóng from is used as a co-verb in sentences such as:

小 王 从 他家 来了这儿 。
Xiǎo Wáng cóng tā jiā lái le zhèr
Xiao Wang came here from his home.

离 lí from cannot be used in the same way, but is used to measure the distance between two objects. For instance,

A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 很 远。
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | hěn yuǎn

My home is a long way from the college.

A | 离 | B | V + distance |
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 有 三 英 里。
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | yǒu sān yīngliǐ

It is three miles from my home to the college.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 走 路一个 小 时。
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | zǒu lù yī ge xiǎoshí

It takes an hour to walk to the college from my home.

The 离lí construction can also be used to measure duration.

For example:

A | 离 | B | V + duration
现在 | 离 | 下 课 | 还有一刻钟。
xiànzài | lí | xiàkè | Háiyǒu yíkè zhōng

It is 15 minutes from now to the end of the class.

The co-verbs 从 cóng from and 到 dào to can also be used to measure distance and duration in the following sentence patterns.

从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn

My home is a long way from the college.

从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn

It is three miles from my home to the college.

从 | A | 到 | B | V + duration
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院 | 走 路一 个 小 时。
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn | zǒu lù yī ge xiǎoshí

It takes an hour to walk to the college from my home.

从 | A | 到 | B | V + duration
从 | 现 在 | 到 | 下 课 | 还 有 一刻 钟。
cóng | Xiànzài | dào | xiàkè | háiyǒu yíkè zhōng

It is 15 minis between now and the end of the class.

Negation and question words are placed next to the main verbs or stative verbs expressing distance or duration as demonstrated below.

A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 远 吗?
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | yuǎn ma

Is it far from my home to the college?

A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 不 远。
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | bù yuǎn

It is not far from my home to the college.

A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 多 远?
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | duō yuǎn

How far is it from my home to the college?

A | 离 | B | V + duration
现 在 | 离 | 下 课 | 还 有 一刻 钟。
xiànzài | lí | xiàkè | Háiyǒu yíkè zhōng

It is 15 minutes from now to the end of the class.

The co-verbs 从 cóng from and 到 dào to can also be used to measure distance and duration in the following sentence patterns.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn

My home is a long way from the college.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn

It is three miles from my home to the college.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 我 家 | 到 | 学 院
cóng | wǒ jiā | dào | xuéyuàn

It takes an hour to walk to the college from my home.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
从 | A | 到 | B
从 | 现 在 | 到 | 下 课
cóng | Xiànzài | dào | xiàkè

It is 15 minis between now and the end of the class.

Negation and question words are placed next to the main verbs or stative verbs expressing distance or duration as demonstrated below.

A | 离 | B | V + duration
A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 远 吗?
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | yuǎn ma

Is it far from my home to the college?

A | 离 | B | V + duration
A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 不 远。
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | bù yuǎn

It is not far from my home to the college.

A | 离 | B | V + duration |
A | 离 | B | SV
我 家 | 离 | 学 院 | 多 远?
wǒ jiā | lí | xuéyuàn | duō yuǎn

How far is it from my home to the college?

Assignments

Directional Verb Complements

A direction verb complement can be formed by an action verb such as 走 zǒu to walk and a word that expresses direction of action such as 进 jìn in or 出 chū out. For instance:

走 进 教 室。
zǒu jìn jiàoshì
To walk into the classroom.

The following list consists of the single directional words.

Verbs | Directional complements | Examples

挂 guà to hàng
戴 dài to wear
上shang up, on
挂 上 地图
guà shang dì tú
To hang up the map.
戴 上 帽 子
dài shang màozi
To put on the hat.

放 fàng to put | 下xià down | 放 下 书 fàng xia shū To put down the book.
走 zǒu to walk 拿 ná to take 开 kāi to drive | 进 jìn in | 车 开 进了学 院 chē kāi jìn le xuéyuàn The car has been driven into the college.
走 zǒu to walk 拿 ná to take 开 kāi to drive | 出 chū out | 走 出 教 室 zǒu chū jiàoshì To walk out of the classroom.

走 zǒu to walk
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
寄 jì to post
回 huí back
拿 回 家
ná huí jiā
To take (bring) it back home.
寄回 中 国
jì huí Zhōngguó
To post it back to China.

走 zǒu to walk 开 kāi to drive | 过 guò across, past, over | 走 过 了书 店 zǒu guò le shūdiàn Walked pass the bookshop.

A directional verb complement can also be formed without an action verb by a directional word with 来 lái to come or去 qù to go. Both 来 lái and 去 qù indicate the position of the speaker. 来 lái to come indicates that the direction is moving towards the speaker and 去 qù to go indicates that the direction is moving away from the speaker. For instance, if your teachers are having a meeting in the classroom and you are outside, you might advise your fellow students:

别 进 去
bié jìn qù
Don’t go in.

Another type of directional verb complement is called the combined directional verb complement. This is formed by an action verb, a directional word and 来 lái to come or 去 qù to go as in:

走 进来
zǒujìnlái
Walking in.

来 lái to come in the above phrase indicates that the direction of 进 jìn entering is moving towards the speaker, in other words the speaker is in the room. Adirect object is often inserted into a combined directional complement. Let’s introduce a subject and an object to the above phrase.

小 王 走 进 了 教 室 来。
Xiǎo Wáng zǒu jìn le jiàoshì lái
Xiao Wang walked into the classroom. (The speaker is in the classroom.)

来 lái to come implies that the action is moving towards the speaker. In other words, the speaker is in the classroom. You may also have noticed that the aspect particle 了 le is placed after the directional word 进 jìn in. The following list consists of combined directional complements.

Verbs | Directional complements | Examples

跑 pǎo to run
走 zǒu to walk
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
上来/去
shàng lái /qù
on
小 王 跑 上 了 山 去。
Xiǎo Wáng pǎo shàng le shān qù
Xiao Wang ran up the mountain. (The speaker is at the bottom of the mountain.)
小 丁 拿 上 了一 杯 茶 来。
Xiǎo Dīng ná shàng le yì bēi chá lái
Xiao Ding brought up a cup of tea. (The speaker is upstairs.)

走 zǒu to walk
跑 pǎo to run
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
下来/去
xiàlái /qù
down
他走 下 了楼 来。
tā zǒu xià le lóu lái
He walked down from upstairs. (The speaker is downstairs.)

走 zǒu to walk
跑 pǎo to run
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
进来/去
jìn lái /qù
in
别 走 进 公 园 去。bié zǒu jìn gongyuán qù
Don’t go into the park. (The speaker is outside park.)

走 zǒu to walk
跑 pǎo to run
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
出来/去
chū lái /qù
out
她 走 出 了 房 间 来。
tā zǒu chū le fangjiān lái
She walked out of the room. (The speaker is outside the room.)

走 zǒu to walk
跑 pǎo to run
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
回来/去
huí lái /qù
back
我 跑 回 了 家 去。
wǒ pǎo huí le jiā qù
I ran home. (The speaker is away from home.)

走 zǒu to walk
跑 pǎo to run
拿 ná to take
开 kāi to drive
过来/去
guò lái /qù
across, past, over
她 拿 过 了一本 书 来。(她 拿 过 来了一本 书 。)
tā ná guòle yì běn shū lái ( tā ná guòlái le yì běn shū )
She brought over a book.

站 zhàn to stand | 起来 qǐ lái up (去qù is not used with 起qǐ) | 你们 都 站 起来。 nǐmen dōu zhàn qǐlái You all stand up.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

What are directional complements?

What are the functions of 来 and 去 in directional complements?

Can a direction word and 来 or 去 be used together?

Can you show me a list of combined directional complements?

Can I use a combined directional complement as the main verb in a sentence?

When do I use the full version of directional verb complements in sentences?

Where should I place the directional verb complements in a sentence?

Where should I place a 了 for completed action when I use a directional complement?

Can the particle 着 be used with a directional complement?

Can the particle 过 be used with a directional complement?

Where should I place the object of a sentence if a directional verb complement is used?

I have seen some sentences with combined directional complements and complex objects, where 来 or 去 are placed after the complex objects. Can you tell me the reason for this?

Potential Verb Complements

A potential verb complement is used to describe the capability of carrying out an action, such as being capable of speaking Chinese or being capable of finishing one’s homework. A potential complement is formed from the following three elements. 1. an action verb 2. 得 de (for affirmative) or 不 bu (for negative) 3. a resultative (apart from 在, 给 and 错) or directional complement.

For examples

看 得 见 走 不 进 教室 去
kàn de jiàn zǒu bu jìn jiàoshì qù
To be able to see To be unable to walk into the classroom

The following examples demonstrate how potential verb complements are used in colloquial Chinese. If you can’t hear someone, you might say to him or her:

我 听 不 见 你 说 的 话。
wǒ tīng bu jiàn nǐ shuō de huà
I can’t hear what you are saying.

If the door of the classroom is locked, you might say to your teacher:

教 室 门 关 着，我 们 走 不 进 去。
jiàoshì mén guān zhe wǒmen zǒu bu jìn qù
The classroom door is closed and we can’t get in.

If you have too much homework for the day, you might say to your teacher:

今 天 的 练 习太 多 了，我 们 作 不 完。
Jīntiānde liànxí tài duō le wǒmen zuòbu wán
There are too many exercises and we can’t finish them today.

The following list consists of those commonly used potential verb complements which have not devolved from resultative and directional verb complements.

Verbs | Potential complements | Examples

吃 chī to eat
说 shuō to speak，
写 xiě to write
作 zuò to do, to cook
得/不了
to be able/unable to
他一个人 作 不 了 这 件 事。
tā yí ge rén zuò bu liǎo zhè jiàn shì
He can’t deal with this matter on his own.

拿 ná to take 走 zǒu to walk 跑 pǎo to run | 得/不动 to be able/unable to move | 东 西 不 多，我 拿 得 动。 dōngxi bu duō, wǒ ná de dòng There isn’t so much stuff; I can take it (on my own).
住 zhù to live, to stay 坐 zuò to sit, to seat 站 zhàn to stand | 得/不下 to have/don’t have room for | 这 间 房 住 得 下几 个 人？ zhè jiān fang zhù de xià jǐ ge rén How many people can this room accommodate?
放 fàng to put 照 zhào to take (a photo) | 得/不上 can/cannot be fitted on/in | 后 边 的 房 子 照 得 上 吗？ hòu biān de fángzi zhào de shàng ma Can the house in the background be fitted into the photo?
买 mǎi to buy 吃 chī to eat 喝 hē to drink | 得/不起 can/cannot afford | 我 买 不 起 这儿 的 房 子。 wǒ mǎi bù qǐ zhèr de fángzi can’t afford to buy the houses round here.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

What are potential complements?

Are there any PVC which are only used idiomatically?

How can I form a sentence with potential complements?

Can I use the particle 了 for completed action in a sentence which has a potential complement?

How do you differentiate complements of degree (得 construction) from potential complements?

Are 能 constructions and potential verb complements interchangeable?

Comparatives 比 with stative verbs and complements of degree

比 bǐ to compare and 没有 méiyou not as…as are used with stative verbs to compare feelings and objects, while the ‘complement of degree’ construction is used when comparing two actions. We will be focusing on the following three sentence patterns in this section.

To compare feelings

Object A | 比/没有 | Object B | Feeling words (V-O)
我 | 比/没有 | 你 | 想 家
wǒ | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ | xiǎngjiā

I’m more home-sick than you. / I’m not as home-sick as you are.

Object A | 比/没有 | Object B | Feeling words (V)
我 | 比/没有 | 你 | 喜欢 学 习
wǒ | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ | xǐhuān xuéxí

I like studying more than you do. / I don’t like studying as much as you do.

To compare two objects

Object A | 比/没有 | Object B | Stative verb
我 的 书 | 比/没有 | 你(的 书) | 多
wǒ de shū | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ(de shū) | duō

I have more books than you. / I don’t have as many books as you do.

Object A | 比/没有 | Object B | Stative verb
我 昨 天 买 的 书 | 比/没有 | 你(昨 天 买 的 书 ) | 多
wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ (zuótiān mǎi de shū) | duō

Yesterday I bought more books than you. / Yesterday I didn’t buy as many books as you did.

When the description of “object A” is clear, the description of “object B” can be omitted. The above example, comparing quantities of books (that I bought and you bought yesterday) can also be changed into a comparison of two actions by using the complement of degree construction.

To compare two actions

Action A | 比/没有 | Action B | Result of action
我 昨 天 买 书 | 比/没有 | 你 买 得 | 多
wǒ zuótiān mǎi shū | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ mǎi de | duō

Yesterday I bought more books than you did. / Yesterday I didn’t buy as many books as you did.

You might have noticed that the complement of degree construction is divided into two parts in the above example. The topic, which consists of the SVO, appears in “Action A”, and the extent of the action appears in “Action B”. Let’s look at some more examples.

Action A | 比/没有 | Action B | Result of action
我 写 汉 字 | 比/没有 | 你 写 得 | 漂 亮
wǒ xiě Hànzì | bǐ/méiyou | nǐ xiě de | piàoliàng

I write Chinese characters more elegantly than you do. / I don’t write Chinese characters as elegantly as you do.

The adverb 很 hěn very is not used in comparatives. If the expression “very much” is needed in a sentence, 多了 duōle much more can be added after the stative verb or any adverbs. For example:

Object A | 比 | Object B | Stative verb + 多了
我 的 书 | 比 | 你(的 书) | 多 多 了
wǒ de shū | bǐ | nǐ(de shū) | duō duōle

I have many more books than you.

Action A | 比 | Action B | Adverb + 多了
我 写 汉 字 | 比 | 你 写 得 | 漂 亮 多 了
wǒ xiě Hànzì | bǐ | nǐ xiě de | piàoliàng duōle

I write Chinese characters much more elegantly than you do.

更 gèng even more / less is placed before a verb to compare the feelings of two people. For example:

Object A | 比 | Object B | Feeling words (V-O)
我 | 比 | 你 | 更 想 家
wǒ | bǐ | nǐ | gèng xiǎngjiā

I’m even more home-sick than you.

Object A | 比 | Object B | Feeling words (V)
我 | 比 | 你 | 更 喜欢 学 习
wǒ | bǐ | nǐ | gèng xǐhuān xuéxí

I like studying even more than you do.

不比 bùbǐ not more than… is another negative comparative construction.

The difference between 不比 bùbǐ sentences and 没有 méiyou sentences is that in a 不比 bùbǐ sentence the quality of the object that appears before 不比 bùbǐ is not better than that of the object that appears after 不比 bùbǐ, but could be of the same quality.

However, in 没有 méiyou sentences the quality of the object that appears before 没有 méiyou is always worse than that of the object that appears after 没有 méiyou.

For example:

Object A | 没有 | Object B | Stative verb
我 的 书 | 没有 | 你(的 书) | 多
wǒ de shū | méiyou | nǐ(de shū) | duō

I don’t have as many books as you do. (You have more books.)

Object A | 不比 | Object B | Stative verb
我 的 书 | 不比 | 你(的 书) | 多
wǒ de shū | bùbǐ | nǐ(de shū) | duō

I don’t have more books than you. (I may have the same amount as you, but not more.)

Assignments

Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

How many comparative constructions are there?

How can I form a 比 sentence, and what should I be aware of?

Can the words “very much”, “extremely” and “really” be used in the 比 construction?

How do I form a sentence if I want to describe exactly how much more or less “A” is than “B”?

Can I use 比 to compare feelings and capabilities?

Can I use the 比 construction to compare two actions?

Can I use the 比 construction to compare the difference in quantity between two actions?

Apart from 比 can any other word be used in comparisons?

How can I say that I prefer A to B?

Can I use the negation 没 before 比?

Can I use the negation 没 before 比?

Are the negative forms of 比(不比) and 有(没有) the same?

Can you demonstrate the different degrees of comparison?

Comparatives with 一样

The expression 一样yíyàng as same as … is used to make two objects equal. For example:

Object A | 跟 | Object B | 一样
我的书 | 跟 | 你的书 | 一样
wǒ de shū | gēng | nǐ de shū | yíyàng

My book is the same as yours.

The negative form of this construction is

Object A | 跟 | Object B | 不一样
我的书 | 跟 | 你的书 | 不一样
wǒ de shū | gēng | nǐ de shū | bùyíyàng

My book is not the same as yours.

一样 yíyàng can also be used to compare feelings, objects and actions. Let’s use the examples in the above section with the expression 一样yíyàng as same as …

To compare feelings

The negating 不 bù is placed before the co-verb 跟 gēng when expressing feelings.

Object A | (不)跟 | Object B | 一样 | Feeling words (V-O)
我 | 跟 | 你 | 一样 | 想 家
wǒ | gēng | nǐ | yíyàng | xiǎngjiā

I’m as home-sick as you are.

Object A | (不)跟 | Object B | 一样 | Feeling words (V)
我 | 跟 | 你 | 一样 | 喜欢 学 习
wǒ | gēng | nǐ | yíyàng | xǐhuān xuéxí

I like studying as much as you do.

To compare two objects (the negating 不 bù is placed before 一样 yíyàng.)

Object A | 跟 | Object B | (不)一样 | Stative verb
我 的 书 | 跟 | 你(的 书) | 一样 | 多
wǒ de shū | gēng | nǐ(de shū) | yíyàng | duō

I have the same number of books as you do.

Object A | 跟 | Object B | (不)一样 | Stative verb
我 昨 天 买 的 书 | 跟 | 你(昨 天 买 的 书 ) | 一样 | 多
wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū | gēng | nǐ(zuótiān mǎi de shū) | yíyàng | duō

Yesterday I bought the same number of books as you did.

To compare two actions (the negating 不 bù is placed before 一样 yíyàng.)

Action A | 跟 | Action B | (不)一样 | Result of action
我 昨 天 买 书 | 跟 | 你 买 得 | 一样 | 多
wǒ zuótiān mǎi shū | gēng | nǐ mǎi de | yíyàng | duō

Yesterday I bought the same number of books as you did.

A | ction A | 跟 | Action B | (不)一样 | Result of action
我 写 汉 字 | 跟 | 你 写 得 | 一样 | 漂 亮
wǒ xiě Hànzì | gēng | nǐ xiě de | yíyàng | piàoliàng

I write Chinese characters as elegantly as you do.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

How can I form a sentence with ...跟 ...一 样？

What is the difference between 有 sentences and 跟...一样... sentences?

What is the difference between the constructions A 跟 B 一样 and A 像 B 一样?

The 把 sentence construction

The 把 bǎ construction is used to talk about, for example: handling or disposing of a particular object (such as sending a particular letter to somewhere); saying a particular sentence clearly; or putting something somewhere.

The verbs used in 把 bǎ sentences take complicated forms such resultative complements, directional complements and the complement of degree. Because of the complex use of verbs in the 把 bǎ construction, it is important to learn or revise the grammar points that are in the other sections relating to the 把 bǎ construction before embarking on this section.

Although 把 bǎ is not often used as a verb in modern Chinese, it still retains the meaning of to hold or to grasp. In this section I will introduce 把 bǎ as a co-verb in the 把 bǎ construction. Please note in this context that sequence is important in Chinese when it comes to describing actions. The first action in a sequence should come first in an utterance. The way to learn co-verb sentences properly is to understand the description of sequence in Chinese word order.

Click the following links to view the Flash files.

To send a letter to China. To put a cup on the table. To finish drinking the wine.

The following two patterns are commonly used to form 把 bǎ sentences.

A sentence with a verb and direct and indirect objects

S | (没)把 | O direct | V+ other element | O indirect
小 李 | 把 | 信 | 寄 给 了 | 小 王
Xiǎo Lǐ | bǎ | xìn | jì gěi le | Xiǎo Wang

Xiao Li has sent the letter to Xiao Wang.

S | (没)把 | O direct | V+ other element | O indirect
小 李 | 把 | 信 | 寄 到 | 中国 去 了
Xiǎo Lǐ | bǎ | xìn | jì dào | Zhōngguó qù le

Xiao Li has sent the letter to China.

These two sentences show how the direct and indirect objects are connected by the verb complements 寄 给 jì gěi send to and 寄 到 jì dào send to. (The complement 给 gěi to is followed by persons and the complement 到 dào to is followed by places.) The above examples also demonstrate that ‘aspect’ 了le is placed after the verbs: in the first example it is placed after 寄 给 jì gěi send to and in the second example it is placed after 去 qù.

A sentence with a verb and an object

S | (没)把 | O | V+ other element
你 | 没 把 | 话 | 说 清 楚
nǐ | méi bǎ | huà | shuō qīngchǔ

You didn’t say it clearly.

The negation 没 méi did not is placed before the co-verb 把 bǎ in the above sentence. Modal verbs, adverbial 地de and co-verb phrases can also precede 把 bǎ. For example

S | 把 | O | V+ other element
你 | 要 把 | 话 | 说 清 楚 吗？
nǐ | yào bǎ | huà | shuō qīngchu ma

Would you like to say it clearly?

S | 把 | O | V+ other element
你 | 在这儿 把 | 话 | 说 清 楚。
nǐ | zài zhèr bǎ | huà | shuō qīngchu

Say it clearly here.

S | 把 | O | V+ other element
你 | 一句一句地 把 | 话 | 说 清 楚。
nǐ | yí jùyí jù de bǎ | huà | shuō qīngchu

Say it clearly, sentence by sentence.

The following list consists of five types of the most common elements that can be attached to verbs in 把 sentences.

Complement of degree

S | --- | --- | --- | --- |  | 把 | O | V+ complement of degree
你 | 把 | 话 | 说 得 非 常 清 楚。
nǐ | bǎ | huà | shuō de fēicháng qīngchu

You’ve said it very clearly indeed.

Resultative complements apart from 见

S | 把 | O | V+ resultative complement
你 | 把 | 话 | 说 错 了。
nǐ | bǎ | huà | shuō chuò le

You’ve said it wrong.

Directional complements

S | 把 | O | V+ directional complement
你 | 把 | 衬衫 | 拿 进来。
nǐ | bǎ | chènshān | ná jìnlai

Bring in the shirt.

…action measures

S | 把 | O | V+ action measure
你 | 把 | 房间 | 整 理一下。
nǐ | bǎ | fángjiān | zhěnglǐ yíxià

Tidy up the room a little.

…着(as a continuous aspect)

S | 把 | O | V+ 着
你 | 把 | 门 | 开 着。
nǐ | bǎ | mén | kāi zhe

Leave the door open.

Potential verb complements are not used in the 把 bǎ construction; instead the modal verb 能 néng is placed before 把 bǎ.

S | 把 | O | V+ other element
你 | 能 把 | 饭 | 吃 完 吗?
nǐ | néng bǎ | fàn | chī wán ma

Can you finish this meal?

Assignments

Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

When can I use 把 sentences?

How can I form a sentence with 把?

What are the commonly used attached verb elements in the 把 construction?

Apart from a subject of a sentence, what other elements which can be placed before 把?

Where should the negation 不 be placed if the 得 (complement of degree) construction is used in a 把 sentence?

Sometimes a 把 sentence contains only a simple main verb and the particle 了. Does that mean that any simple verb + 了 can be used in 把 sentences?

Is it right that the 把 construction can only be used for real objects, and not for abstract objects?

What shouldn't be used in 把 sentences?

When can I avoid using 把?

Passive with 被, 让, 叫 and 给

In Chinese, the passive constructions with 被 bèi 让 ràng 叫 jiào and 给 gěi are not as frequently used as are passive constructions in English. For instance, when translating the previous sentence into Chinese, one would not use the bèi construction.

The co-verbs 被 bèi 让 ràng 叫 jiào and 给 gěi are used to introduce the agent of a passive sentence, as in 我的车被小王借走了wǒ de chē bèi Xiǎo Wáng jiè zǒu le my car has been borrowed by Xiao Wang. The co-verb 被 bèi introduces the agent, Xiao Wang, who has carried out the action of borrowing. All the co-verbs above have the same function when introducing the agent of a passive sentence, but 被 bèi is the most commonly used. The following tables show the sentence components that are used in the 被 bèi construction.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | agent | verb + other elements
我的车 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 借 走 了
wǒ de chē | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | jiè zǒu le

My car has been borrowed by Xiao Wang.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | agent | verb + other elements |
我的车 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 开 回 家 去 了
w | ǒ de chē | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | kāi huí jiā qù le

My car has been driven back home by Xiao Wang.

You might have noticed that the ‘action verb plus other element’ constructions used in the above sentences are complicated ones. Which elements that can be used with verbs in a 被 bèi construction? Let’s look at the following list.

The elements that are commonly preceded by verbs in the bèi construction are:

--resultative complements --directional complements --the complement of degree --action measures

As you may have noticed, the elements that are used in the 被 bèi sentence construction are very similar to the ones used in the 把 bǎ construction. After learning the examples below please try to reformulate them as 把 bǎ constructions.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Agent | verb + resultative complement
电视 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 修 好 了
diànshì | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | xiū hǎo le

The TV has been mended by Xiao Wang.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | agent | verb + directional complement
我的车 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 开 回 家 去 了
wǒ de chē | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | kāi huí jiā qù le

My car has been driven back home by Xiao Wang.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | agent | verb + complement of degree
房间 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 打扫 得 很 干净
fángjiān | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | dǎsǎo de hěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely by Xiao Wang.

subject | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | agent | verb + action measure
我 的 车 | 被/让/ 叫 /给 | 小 王 | 用 了 一会儿
wǒ de chē | bèi/ràng/jiào/gěi | Xiǎo Wáng | yòng le yíhuòr

My car has been used by Xiao Wang for a little while.

被 bèi can also be used to form a passive sentence without introducing an agent, but 给 gěi 让 jiào and 叫 ràng cannot be used in this way. For example,

subject | bèi | verb + other elements
我 的 车 | 被 | 开 回 家 去 了
wǒ de chē | bèi | kāi huí jiā qù le

My car has been driven back home.

subject | bèi | verb + other elements
电 视 | 被 | 修 好 了
diànshì | bèi | xiū hǎo le

The TV has been mended.

subject | bèi | verb + other elements
房 间 | 被 | 打扫 得 很 干 净
fángjiān | bèi | dǎsǎo de hěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

subject | bèi | verb + other elements
课文 | 被 | 翻译 成 汉 语了
kèwén | bèi | fānyì chéng Hànyǔ le

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

The above examples also indicate that aspect le is used when expressing the idea of an action that has happened. 没 méi not can be followed by the co-verb 被 bèi to change the above examples into the negative form in order to deny that the action has taken place. For example,

If someone says that:

subject | bèi | agent | verb + resultative complement
电 视 | 被 | 小 王 | 修 好 了
diànshì | bèi | Xiǎo Wáng | xiū hǎo le

The TV has been mended by Xiao Wang.

You can deny that the action has taken place by saying:

subject | méi bèi | agent | verb + resultative complement
电视 | 没 被 | 小王 | 修 好
diànshì | méi bèi | Xiǎo Wáng | xiū hǎo

The TV hasn’t been mended by Xiao Wang.

If someone says that:

subject | bèi | verb + complement of degree
房间 | 被 | 打扫 得 很 干 净
fángjiān | bèi | dǎsǎo de hěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

You can deny that the outcome of the action by saying:

subject | bèi | verb + complement of degree (bu)
房间 | 被 | 打 扫 得 不很 干 净
fángjiān | bèi | dǎsǎo de buhěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

Adverbs that are used to describe actions are placed before the verb in a 被 bèi construction, unlike adverbs that are used in the 把 bǎ construction, which are followed by the co-verb 把 bǎ. Let’s see look at some examples.

subject | bèi | agent | adverbial phrase + de | verb + other elements
课文 | 被 | 小 王 | 清 清 楚 楚 地 | 念 了一遍
kèwén | bèi | Xiǎo Wáng | Qīngqīngchǔchǔ de | niàn le yíbiàn

The text has been read out very clearly by Xiao Wang.

If we use this information to form a 把 bǎ sentence it would become:

subject | adverbial phrase + de | bǎ | object | verb + other elements
小王 | 清 清 楚 楚 地 | 把 | 课文 | 念 了一遍
Xiǎo Wáng | qīngqīngchǔchǔ de | bǎ | kèwén | niàn le yíbiàn

Xiao Wang has read the text out loud very clearly.

Assignments Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

When should I use 被 sentences?

Which verb forms are used in 被 sentences?

How can I form 被 sentences?

Sentence pattern 1

Sentence pattern 2

Can all 把 sentences be turned into 被 sentences?

Do 被 sentences always have a negative sense?

Can a simple monosyllabic verb be used in the 被 construction?

Should the agent always appear after 被?

Is there any other difference between 被, 让, 叫 and 给 in passive sentences?

Is it necessary to use 被 or 给 if the agent is not there?

When an active sentence is changed into a passive one, is the emphasis of the sentence also changed?

Notional passive (without 被, 让, 叫 and 给)

A notional passive sentence is formed without the co-verbs 被 bèi 让 ràng 叫 jiào and 给 gěi. Let’s use the examples that we have used in the previous section to form some notional passive sentences.

subject | verb + other elements
我 的 车 | 开 回 家 去了
wǒ de chē | kāi huí jiā qù le

My car has been driven back home.

subject | verb + other elements
电 视 | 修 好了
diànshì | xiū hǎo le

The TV has been mended.

subject | verb + other elements
房间 | 打 扫 得 很 干 净
fángjiān | dǎsǎo de hěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

As the subjects in the above examples cannot carry out actions themselves, then we assume that the actions must have been undertaken by someone else. In fact this sentence pattern is very useful for describing how an object has been dealt with. For example:

subject | verb + other elements
书 | 放 在 桌 子 上 了
shū | fàng zài zhuōzi shàng le

The book has been put on the table.

subject | verb + other elements
饭 | 拿 上 楼 去了
fàn | ná shàng lóu qù le

The meal has been brought upstairs.

The verb components in the notional passive are very similar to those of the 被 bèi construction. They are action verbs with other elements, as shown below.

--resultative complements --directional complements --the complement of degree --action measures

subject | verb + resultative complement |
饭 | 作 好 了
f | àn | zuò hǎo le

The book has been put on the table.

subject | verb + directional complement
饭 | 拿 上 楼 去 了
fàn | ná shàng lóu qù le

The meal has been brought upstairs.

subject | verb + complement of degree
房间 | 打 扫 得 很 干 净
fángjiān | dǎsǎo de hěn gānjìng

The room has been cleaned up very nicely.

subject | verb + action measure
课文 | 念 了 两 遍
kèwén | niàn le liǎng biàn

The text has been read twice.

没 méi not can be used to deny that the above actions have taken place, but 不 bu is used with the complement of degree.

subject | méi verb + resultative complement
饭 | 没 作 好
fàn | méi zuò hǎo

The meal hasn’t been prepared.

subject | méi verb + directional complement
饭 | 没 拿 上 楼 去
fàn | méi ná shàng lóu qù

The meal hasn’t been brought upstairs.

subject | verb + complement of degree (bu)
房 间 | 打扫 得 不 很 干 净
fángjiān | dǎsǎo de bu hěn gānjìng

The room hasn’t been cleaned up very nicely.

subject | méi verb + action measure
课文 | 没 念 两 遍
kèwén | méi niàn liǎng biàn

The text hasn’t been read twice. (It implies that the text may only have been read once, or possibly three times.)

Assignments

Frequently asked questions Click on the following links to view the answers

When should I use this construction?

Are there any differences between the sentences without 被 and ones with 被?

What do I need to form this type of sentences?

Are there any other constructions in the passive voice, apart from 被, 让,叫 , 给 sentences and notional passives?

Conjunctions

I will introduce ten of the most commonly used Chinese conjunctions in this section.

Chinese | Pinyin | English-
要是… 就… | yàoshì…jiù… | if…then…-
…要不… | …yàobú… | otherwise-
只要…就… | zhǐyào… jiù… | as long as...; provided that…-
只有…才… | zhǐyǒu… cái… | only…; only when…-
因为…所以… | yīnwèi… suǒyǐ… | because …therefore…-
不但…而且… | búdàn… érqiě… | not only…but also…-
虽然…但是… | suīrán… dànshì… | although……-
除了…以外… | chúle… yǐwài,… | apart from…-
越…越… | yuè… yuè… | the more/less… the more/less it becomes-
一…就… | yī… jiù… | as soon as … then…-

Sentence patterns 1 - 4 above are conditional constructions.

要是 yàoshì… 就 jiù… if…then… A condition is placed after 要是 yàoshì and is followed by the 就 jiù clause which indicates the consequence of the condition. The adverb 就 jiù must be placed before verbs or stative verbs. For example, a parent might say to a child:

要 是 你 学 好 汉 语， 我 就 给 你 很 多 钱。
yàoshì nǐ xué hǎo Hànyǔ, wǒ jiù gěi nǐ hěn duō qián
If you learn Chinese well, I’ll give you a lot of money.

…要不 yàobú…otherwise. The clause that precedes 要不 yàobú indicates a required condition and an undesirable result is placed after 要不 yàobú otherwise. For example, a strict parent might say to a child:

你 应该 学 好 汉语， 要 不 我 不 给 你 钱。
nǐ yīnggāi xué hǎo Hànyǔ, yàobu wǒ bù gěi nǐ qián
You should learn Chinese well, otherwise I won’t give you any money.

只要 zhǐyào…就 jiù… as long as...; provided that…The 只要 zhǐyào clause is used to introduce a condition that can be easily achieved, or is a minimum requirement, and the 就 jiù clause introduces the outcome of the condition. The adverb 就 jiù must be placed before verbs or stative verbs. For example, a lenient parent might say to his or her child:

只要 你 学 汉 语， 我 就 给 你 很 多 钱。
zhǐyào nǐ xué Hànyǔ, wǒ jiù gěi nǐ hěn duō qián
As long as you learn Chinese, I’ll give you a lot of money.

只有 zhǐyǒu…才cái…only…The 只有 zhǐyǒu clause is used to introduce a condition that is hard to achieve, and the 才 cái clause introduces the outcome of the condition. The adverb 才 cái must be placed before verbs or stative verbs. For example, if a parent desperately wants his or her child to learn Chinese well he or she might say:

只有 你 把 汉语 学 好， 我 才 给 你 钱。
zhǐyǒu nǐ bǎ Hànyǔ xué hǎo, wǒ cái gěi nǐ qián
Only when you have learned Chinese well will I give you money.

因为 yīnwèi…所以 suǒyǐ… because…therefore… A friend might want to know why a parent has given a lot of money to her child. The parent might say:

因 为 他 学 好 了 汉 语， 所 以 我 给 他 很 多 钱。
yīnwèi tā xué hǎo le Hànyǔ, suǒyǐ wǒ gěi tā hěn duō qián
As he has learned Chinese well, I’ve given him a lot of money.

不但 búdàn…而且 érqiě… not only…but also… 不但 búdàn and 而且 érqiě can be placed before the subject or the verb of their clauses: this depends on the emphasis required. If the emphasis is on the subject then they should be placed before the subject; if the emphasis is on the action then they should be placed before the verb. After completing his Chinese degree, the student has got his reward from his parent. He might say:

我 不但 学 会 了汉 语， 而且 拿 到 了 很 多 钱。
wǒ búdàn xué huì le Hànyǔ, érqiě nádào le hěnduō qián
I’ve not only learned Chinese, but have also got a lot of money.

The following example shows 不但 búdàn and 而且 érqiě are used for emphasizing the subjects. As the material reward scheme is very successful, the parent's youngest son wants to learn Chinese as well.

不 但 大儿子 学 了 汉 语，而 且 小 儿子也 要 学 汉 语。
búdàn dà érzi xué le Hànyŭ érqiě xiăo érzi yě yào xué Hànyŭ
Not only the oldest son studied Chinese, but also the youngest son would like to learn Chinese as well.

虽然 suīrán…但是 dànshì…Although…, … The 虽然 suīrán although clause should precede 但是 dànshì clause. Unlike the English ‘although’ construction, the second clause should always start with 但是 dànshì or 可是 kěshì but… For example, if the parent breaks her promise and doesn’t give money to the student, the student might say:

我 虽然 学 好 了 汉 语， 但 是 没 拿 到 钱。
wǒ suīrán xué hǎo le Hànyǔ, dànshì méi nádào qián
Although I’ve learned Chinese well, I haven’t got the money (that was promised).

一 yī…就 jiù…as soon as … then…This construction is used to express the idea of a second action immediately following the first action. Both一 yī and 就 jiù should be followed by verbs. The aspect 了le is not used in the 一 yī clause. For example:

他一 学 完 汉 语 他 爸爸 就 给 了 他 很 多 钱。
tā yì xué wán Hànyǔ , tā bàba jiù gěi le tā hěn duō qián
As soon as he completed the Chinese course, his father gave him a lot of money.

越 yuè…越 yuè… the more… the more. The conditional clause following the first 越 yuè shows the extent of the feeling, state or action; the second 越 yuè clause shows the result. 越 yuè should always be placed before a verb, stative verb or adverb. However, 越 yuè precedes the result of an action with a complement of degree. For example:

汉 语 越 学 越 容 易。
Hànyǔ yuè xué yuè róngyi
The more one studies Chinese, the easier it becomes.

我 学 得 越 多 拿 到 的 钱 越 多。
wǒ xué de yuè duō ná dào de qián yuè duo
The more I learn the more money I get.

我 拿 到 的 钱 越 多 越 想 学。
wǒ ná dào de qián yuè duo yuè xiǎng xué
The more money I get, the more I want to learn.

除了chúle…以外 yǐwài, … Apart from…The 除了chúle…以外 yǐwài clause can be followed by clauses with the following adverbs.: 还 hái in addition, 又 yòu again; in addition, 也 yě also, 都 dōu all. For example:

除 了 汉 语 以 外，我 还 学 了 日语。
chúle Hànyǔ yǐ wài, wǒ hái xué le Rì yǔ
Apart from Chinese, I’ve learned Japanese.

除 了 学 生 以 外，老 师 也 在 这儿 喝酒。
chúle xuésheng yǐ wài, lǎoshi yě lài zhèr hē jiǔ
Apart from students, teachers also come here to drink.

除 了 丁 云 以 外，大家 都 来 上 课 了。
chúle Dīng Yún yǐ wài, dàjiā dōu lái shàng kè le
Everyone came to the lesson apart from Ding Yun.

除 了 他 给 我 的 那 杯 酒 以 外，我 又 喝了 一杯。
chúle tā gěi wǒ de nà bēi jiǔ yǐ wài, wǒ yòu hē le yì bēi
I had another glass of wine, as well as the one that he gave me.

Assignments

The shi ... de construction

We have learned that the 是…的 shì… de construction is used to emphasis stative verbs, for example, 这条裙子是新的 zhè tiáo qúnzi shì xīn de this skirt is new. In this session I would like to introduce the other two usages of the 是…的shì … de construction.

是…的shì… de is used for emphasis in the past of time when and the way something is done. For example, when you want to tell someone that it was last May that you went to China by train, the 是…的 shì… de construction should be used as demonstrated below.

我 是 去 年 五 月 坐 火 车 去 中 国 的。
wǒ shì qùnián wǔyuè zuò huǒchē qù Zhōngguó de

As you may have noticed, 是 shì and 的de are used like a “frame” that includes the time, the method, the action and the place. If the object of a sentence has no description or has no any other subordination, like the one above, 的 de can be placed after the verb to emphasize the place. In other words, the sentence above could look like this

我 是 去 年 五 月 坐 火 车 去 的 中 国。
wǒ shì qùnián wǔyuè zuò huǒchē qù de Zhōngguó

是…的shì… de can also be used to emphasise the agent of a sentence. For instance:

这 件 事 是 我 作 的。
zhè jiàn shì shì wǒ zuò de
It was me who did this.

这 本 书 是 鲁 迅 写 的。
zhèběn shū shì Lǔxùn xiě de
It was Luxun who wrote that book. / That book was written by Luxun.

When translating a passive English sentence into Chinese, it is important to identify the emphasis of the sentence first. If the emphasis is on the agent, then the 是…的shì… de construction should be applied. On the other hand, if the emphasis is on the outcome of an action, but not on the agent, then the 被 bèi construction or notional passive construction should be applied. For example

桌 子 上 的 菜 是 我 吃 的。
zhuōzi shàng de cài shì wǒ chī de.
It was me who ate the food on the table.

桌 子 上 的 菜 (被 我) 吃 完 了。
zhuōzi shàng de cài (bèi wǒ) chī wán le.
The food that was on the table has been eaten (by me).

Assignments Frequently asked question Click on the following link to view the answer What is the difference between 被 sentences and 是...的 sentences, as in 这本书是他写的?

The uses of question words with dou and ye

These constructions are used for general categorisation. They can describe how a particular action applies to a general object, as in 我什么东西都吃 wŏ shénme dōngxi dōu chī I eat anything; 我哪儿都去 wŏ năr dōu qù I go anywhere. They can also describe people in general doing a particular type of thing, as in 谁都喜欢吃中国菜 shuí dōu xĭhuān chī Zhōngguó cài everyone likes eating Chinese food.

The question word 什么 shénme what is placed before a noun to imply any or every, and can refer to the subject or object of a sentence. If 什么 shénme any or every is used as the object, it should be placed before the adverb 都 dōu both, all, and can be placed before or after the subject of a sentence. The adverb 都 dōu is placed before the verb, as illustrated below.

S. | 什 么 O. | 都 | V.
我 | 什 么 东 西 | 都 | 吃。
wŏ | shénme dōngxi | dōu | chī

I eat anything. Or

什 么 O. | S. | 都 | V.
什 么 东 西 | 我 | 都 | 吃。
shénme dōngxi | wŏ | dōu | chī

The question words 哪儿 nǎr where and 谁 shuí who can be used in the same way as 什么 shénme what.

S. | 那儿 (O.) | 都 | V.
我 | 哪儿 | 都 | 去。
wŏ | nǎr | dōu | qù

I go anywhere. Or:

那儿 (O.) | S. | 都 | V.
哪儿 | 我 | 都 | 去。
nǎr | wŏ | dōu | qù

I go anywhere.

If the any or every word is the subject of a sentence, the resulting sentence patterns will be as follows.

谁(S) | 都 | V. | O.
谁 | 都 | 喜欢 吃 | 中 国 菜
shuí | dōu | xĭhuān chī | Zhōngguó cài

Everyone likes eating Chinese food. Or:

什 么 S. | 都 | V. | O.
什么 人 | 都 | 喜欢 吃 | 中 国 菜
shénme rén | dōu | xihuan chī | Zhōngguó cài

Everyone likes eating Chinese food.

The adverb 也 yě often precedes the negation 不 bù or 没 méi as demonstrated below.

S. | 哪 儿(O.) | 也 | 不 /没V.
我 | 哪 儿 | 也 | 不 去。
wŏ | năr | yĕ | bú qù

I don’t go anywhere (nowadays).

S. | 什 么 O. | 也 | 不 /没V.
我 | 什 么 地方 | 也 | 没 去。
wŏ | shénme dìfang | yĕ | méi qù

I didn’t go anywhere.

The adverb 也 yě is usually used in negative sentences as above, while the adverb 都 dōu can be used in both affirmative and negative sentences, such as:

S. | 哪 儿(O.) | 也 / 都 | 不 /没V.
我 | 哪 儿 | 也 /都 | 不 去。
wŏ | năr | yĕ/dōu | bú qù

I don’t go anywhere (nowadays). Or:

S. | 什 么 O. | 也 / 都 | 不 /没V.
我 | 什 么 地方 | 也 /都 | 不 去。
wŏ | shénme dìfang | yĕ/dōu | bú qù

I don’t go anywhere (nowadays).

Assignments

The lian ye construction

This is one of the constructions used to emphasize a noun, a noun clause or a v-o pattern. The emphasized element can be the subject or the object of a sentence and is placed after 连 lián even.

The adverb 都 dōu or 也 yě is placed before the main verb of the sentence. The difference between 都 dōu and 也 yě is that 都 dōu can be used in both the affirmative and negative, while 也 yě is normally used before negatives or before verbs which have a negative sense.

The 连 lián clause refers to the object of the sentence in the following examples.

S. | 连 O. | 都/ 也 V.
他 | 连 觉 | 也 忘 了 睡
tā | lián jiào | yě wàng le shuì

He has even forgotten to go to sleep. Or

S. | 连 V-O. | 都/ 也 V.
他 | 连 睡 觉 | 也 忘 了
tā | lián shuìjiào | yě wàng le

S. | 连 O. | 都/ 也 V.
我 | 连 他的 名 字 | 也 忘 了
wǒ | lián tā de míngzi | yě wàng le

I’ve even forgotten his name.

The 连 lián clause refers to the subject of the sentence in the following example.

连 S. | 都/也 V. O.
连 好学生 | 也 不去 上 课.
lián hăo xuéshēng | yě búqù shàngkè

Even the good students don't go to class.

Although the sentences above are in the affirmative form, the adverb 也 yě is used to imply that forgetting to sleep, forgetting someone’s name, and not going to class, are all undesirable actions. Of course, the adverb 都 dōu can also be used in the above sentences.

When placed after the particle 得 de, the 连 lián construction can be used to describe the outcome of an action, in a complement of degree construction, as follows.

S | SV 得 | Outcome of the SV (连… 也…)
我 们 | 忙 得 | 连 饭 也 忘 了 吃
wǒmen | máng de | lián fàn yě wangle chī

We are so busy that we’ve even forgotten to eat.

The phrase 连饭也忘了吃 lián fàn yě wangle chī even forget to eat, here placed after the particle 得 de, describes the results of the state described before 得 de.

Assignments