Chinese-all-day-breakfast/Original/4.utf8.html

    Grammar notes


      嗎?

One of the most common ways of forming a question in Chinese is to add
嗎 at the end of a statement. Hence 你好! (Hi!) becomes 你好嗎? (How are
you?)


      你呢?

This is to be used to redirect the question originally addressed to you.
Its meaning is equivalent to "and you?" "what about you?" or "how about
you?"

    A: 你好嗎?
        How are you?
    B: 我很好, 你呢?
        I am fine, and you?

    A: 你忙嗎?
        Are you busy?
    B: 我不忙, 你呢?
        I am not busy, what about you?


      很, 也, 都

All three are adverbs, which should be placed /before/ what they modify
in Chinese. E.g., 很好, 也好, 都好.

Sometimes 很 is not really employed to mean "very" if it is modifying a
monosyllabic adjective such as 好. It is simply because to say 我好 is a
bit abrupt and hence awkward with only a monosyllabic adjective as the
predicate of the sentence. Therefore people usually add 很 before 好 to
make the sentence sound natural: 我很好 in this case does not
necessarily mean "I am /very/ well", it may simply convey the meaning of
"I am fine".

/The order of these words:/ If all three adverbs occur in the same
sentence, their order is 也 -- 都 -- 很:

    我很好.
    我也很好.
    我們也都很好.

N.B. 都 (both/all) is only used to refer to the items to the /left/ of
it. Hence it is wrong to say 都他們很好 ("all of them are fine"). One
should say 他們都很好.


      都不 vs. 不都

都不 indicates a complete negation whereas 不都 shows a partial negation:

    他們都不忙
        None of them is busy.
    他們不都忙
        Not all of them are busy.
    我們都不是大夫
        None of us is a doctor.
    我們不都是大夫
        Not all of us are doctors.


      的

As an auxiliary word, 的 is used to indicate possession. It comes
between the subject and the noun it modifies: 我的書, 我媽媽的車 etc.

In the case of kinship or as a reference to people, however, the
possessive marker 的 can be omitted. /Otherwise it cannot/.

    e.g. 你弟弟 = 你的弟弟, 我爸爸 = 我的爸爸 


      我很好 -- Adjectival sentence without verb "to be".

Unlike English, Chinese sentences can sometimes go without a verb. In
the sentence 我很好, the adjectival phrase 很好 serves as the predicate
for the sentence. No verb "to be" is needed as in English (I /am/ very
well). This is generally true of a sentence that has an /adjective/ as
its predicate, even in negative sentences.

    e.g. 他們很忙, 我們不忙
        They are very busy, we are not.

Notice that in other types of sentences, however, verb 是 should still
be retained:

    他是我朋友
        He is my friend.

    我不是她的哥哥
        I am not her elder brother.


      Proper Response

Study the following two dialogues:

    A: 你媽媽是大夫嗎?
        Is your mother a doctor?
    B: 是, 她是大夫.
        Yes, she is a doctor.

    A: 你媽媽忙嗎?
        Is your mother busy?
    B: 忙, 她很忙.
        Yes, she is very busy.

To respond positively to a yes/no question, we often repeat the verb --
in the above case 是 and 忙 respectively -- as an equivalent to the
English "yes" before making the statement itself. Note therefore that
the response is not always 是.


    Questions with interrogative words 誰, 哪, 什麼

Unlike English which has to move such interrogative words as "what",
"when", "who" etc to the beginning of the sentence to form a question,
Chinese leaves the word order unchanged when forming questions using
such interrogative words as 誰, 哪, 什麼, etc:

 1. 他是我弟弟. (He is my younger brother.)
    他是誰? (Who is he?)

 2. 他是我們老師. (He is our teacher.)
    誰是你們老師? (Who is your teacher?)

 3. 他是中國人. (He is Chinese.)
    他是哪國人? (What is his nationality?)

 4. 這是中國地圖. (This is a map of China.)
    這是什麼地圖? (What map is this?)

 5. 那是書. (That is a book.)
    那是什麼? (What is that?)

 6. 這是她的車. (This is her car.)
    這是誰的車? (Whose car is this?)

As is obvious, one simply replaces the relevant words, which are what
one wants to ask about, with the interrogative words to form questions.
No change of word order takes place.


    Asking a person's name

There are several ways of asking a person's name, depending on who that
person is.

 1. 您貴姓﹖

    This is a very polite way of asking someone's name, literally "What
    is your honourable surname?". It is usually used to address one's
    elders or superiors, or someone of one's own age but to whom one
    wants to be polite. Notice, however, that the expression 貴姓 cannot
    be used when asking about a third person's name, or when referring
    to oneself.

        A: 您/你貴姓﹖
            What is your name?
        B: 我姓丁。
            My name is Ding.

 2. 你叫什麼﹖

    This is a plain form of asking a person's name. It is usually used
    to address people of one's own age or younger, or one's inferiors.
    If one wants to be a bit polite, 請問 can be added to the question:

        請問﹐你叫什麼﹖
            May I ask, what's your name?

    Unlike 貴姓, which is only used in the second person, 叫什麼 can be
    employed for all persons:

        她叫什麼﹖我們叫什麼﹖我哥哥叫什麼﹖etc. 

When asked 你姓什麼﹖you are supposed to give your last name first, and
then as an option you can add your full name afterwards. But when asked
你叫什麼﹖you can give either your given name or your full name.


    Word usage: 學習﹐ 學

Both words mean "to study" or "to learn". Whereas 學習 can be used both
transitively and intransitively, 學 is normally reserved for transitive
use.

    e.g. 我學(習)漢語﹐她學(習)法語。
        I study Chinese, she studies French.
    我學習﹐我弟弟不學習。
        I study, my younger brother doesn't study.

In the second sentence, the word 習 cannot be omitted.


    Grammar notes

 1. 在 (to be at/in...) functions as a verb.

    To express the location or existence of something or somebody, use
    the following pattern:

        S + 在 + place/location word or phrase
        e.g. A: 你的地圖在哪兒﹖
        B: 我的地圖在那兒。

        A: 你爸爸媽媽在哪兒﹖
        B: 他們在中國。 

    If the location or place is known or obvious, it can be omitted:

        A: 古波在嗎﹖
            Is Gubo in [or: here]?
        B: 他不在﹐他在學生宿舍。
            He is not here. He is at the students' dormitory.


 2. Nouns / personal pronouns + 這兒/那兒 as place words.

        e.g. A: 地圖在哪兒﹖
        B: 在我這兒。(or 在我那兒)

        A: 你的車在哪兒﹖
        B: 我的車在學生宿舍那兒。 

    The choice of 這兒 and 那兒 depends on the distance between the
    object and the speaker. If it is close to the speaker, use 這兒; if
    not, use 那兒.

 3. The word order for Chinese place words

    Unlike English, Chinese place words start with the larger ones and
    proceed to the smaller ones. Hence the sentence "She lives in room
    423, 4th floor at the student dorm at the college" will be 她住學院
    學生宿舍四層四二三號。 Notice the exactly reverse order here, which
    is applicable to the address used when writing letters as well.

 4. To live (stay) at a place

    Most often one uses 住 to indicate that one lives or stays at a
    certain place. There are several patterns for the use of 住. For
    example, to say "I live here", one can have the following:

        S + 住 + place word (我住這兒)
        S + 住在 + place word (我住在這兒)
        S + 在 + place word + 住 (我在這兒住)

    All three sentences have the same meaning.

 5. Reading numbers for phone, room, building, ID, etc

    Unlike English, these sorts of Chinese numbers are read out digit by
    digit:

        English: # 1452 (number fourteen fifty-two)
        Chinese: # 1452 (一四五二號) 


    The use of 還 (to return something to someone)

When using 還 to indicate "return", use the following pattern:

    S + 還 + (sb.) + sth.
    e.g. 我還他畫報
    你還丁云的車。(Notice here sb. is omitted.)

This pattern is /only/ used for simple objects, i.e. the object to be
returned is not a complex one such as 她媽媽的日本車, etc. Notice in the
second example above, sb. is omitted because it would be awkward to say
你還丁云丁云的車, although grammatically it is correct. We will later
learn the ways to express something more complicated.


    用一下兒

In this phrase, 用 is a verb which can be used both transitively and
intransitively (i.e. it can be used either with or without an object).
一下兒 is an adverbial of time indicating "a short while, a little
while". If an object is to be used for 用 in the above phrase, it should
be placed after 一下兒:

    我用一下兒你的書﹐好嗎﹖
        Is it all right for me to use your book for a short while?
    他們用一下兒你爸爸的車。
        They want to use your dad's car for a little while.


    Time Word 現在

Time words in Chinese are normally placed in one of two positions in a
sentence: /before/ or /after/ the subject.

    現在她去學院還書。
        Now she is going to the college to return books.
    or 她現在去學院還書。


    常 and 常常

常 in the sense of "often" can often be reduplicated as 常常 without a
change of meaning. Thus, 他常喝茶 = 他常常喝茶, 我們常去看書 = 我們常常
去看書.

In making negative sentences, however, 常 is normally /not/
reduplicated. Hence 他不常喝茶, 我們不常去看書.


    Affirmative-Negative questions

An alternative way of forming a question is to juxtapose the affirmative
and negative forms of the predicative verb or adjective:

    她是中國人嗎﹖becomes 她是不是中國人﹖
    你忙嗎﹖becomes 你忙不忙﹖
    你認識他嗎﹖becomes 你認識不認識他﹖

 1. If the verb or adjective is composed of a single word, then repeat
    the single word; if two or more words, then repeat them all:

        忙不忙, 認識不認識, 介紹不介紹

 2. If the predicative verb takes an object, it is usually only the verb
    that gets repeated, not the noun following it:

        你喝不喝茶﹖
        你去不去中國﹖

 3. Sometimes if the object of the verb is not long, one can use the
    form of "V + object + 不 + V ?" as well, although this is not as
    common:

        你喝茶不喝茶﹖
        她去中國不去﹖

 4. As in questions with interrogative words (誰, 什麼, etc),
    affirmative-negative questions do not take 嗎 at the end.

 5. If an adverb such as 常, 都, 也 or 很 comes /before/ the predicative
    verb or adjective, do not use the affirmative-negative form but use
    嗎 instead:

        你們都去中國嗎﹖
        but not 你們都去不去中國﹖

        他常喝咖啡嗎﹖
        but not 他常喝不喝咖啡﹖

    Notice, however, that this rule applies only when those adverbs come
    /before/ the predicative verbs or adjectives. Compare:

     1. 她很忙嗎﹖ but not 她很忙不忙﹖

     2. 她是很好大夫嗎﹖ 她是不是很好的大夫﹖

    The second instance is acceptable because 很 comes /after/ the
    predicative verb 是.

 6. If there is more than one verb in a sentence, usually only the
    /first/ verb gets the affirmative-negative form in the question:

        你去商店買紙嗎﹖becomes 你去不去商店買紙﹖
        他們歡迎我來嗎﹖ becomes 他們歡迎不歡迎我來﹖


    和 and 都

In Chinese, 和 as a conjunction is normally used to connect two words or
phrases, /never/ two clauses or sentences:

    中國和美國
    我的爸爸和媽媽
    她學習漢語和英語。
    你認識我爸爸和弟弟嗎﹖

    but not 我弟弟是學生﹐和我哥哥也是學生。
    nor 你學習法語﹐和我也學習法語。

The adverb 都 is placed between the subject and the predicative verb or
adjective. It governs only the elements /before/ it:

    我們都去中國。 (All of us go to China: 都 modifies 我們.)
    but not 都我們去中國。

This is also wrong:

    我都學漢語和法語。

because 都 modifies 我 and not 漢語和法語. If "both Chinese and French"
is intended in the above sentence, the objects 漢語和法語 should be
placed before 都:

    我漢語和法語都學。
    or 漢語和法語都我學。


    The verb 有 expressing possession and existence

The verb 有 in Chinese can mean both possession and existence, like the
English "to have" and "there is" or "there are":

    她有漢語詞典。
        She has a Chinese dictionary.
    我們學院有多外國學生。
        There are a lot of foreign students in our college.

N.B.:

 1. To negate 有, one uses 沒 instead of 不:

        我有哥哥﹐我沒有姐姐。
            I have an elder brother, but no elder sister.

 2. Informally in a negative sentence, 有 can sometimes be omitted:

        我朋友沒(有)書﹐也沒(有)筆。
            My friend does not have books, nor pens.
        現在我們的宿舍沒(有)人。
            There is no one in our dorm now.

 3. The affirmative-negative question form is "... 有沒有 ... ?"

        她有沒有妹妹﹖
        呢﹐你們的宿舍有沒有人﹖

    Sometimes, if the object of 有 is not long, one can use the form
    "... 有 + object + 沒有 ?" as well, although this form is not as
    common as the previous one.

        她有妹妹沒有﹖
        這宿舍有人沒有﹖


    Prepositional construction with 在 (in, at) and 給 (for, to)

The object of 在 is often a place-word and the object of 給 is often the
beneficiary of the action expressed by the predicative verb. In Chinese,
a prepositional construction comes /before/ the verb it modifies:

    他在銀行工作。
        She works in a bank.
    but not 她工作在銀行。

    我給你們介紹一下兒。
        Let me introduce you to one another.
    but not 我介紹一下兒給你們。

To form a negative sentence, 不 is placed /before/ the prepositional
construction:

    他不在銀行工作。
    我不給你們介紹。
        I am not going to introduce you.

Adverbs such as 常, 都, 也 are also placed /before/ the prepositional
construction:

    我們都在 City Lit 學院學習漢語。
        We all study Chinese at the City Lit.
    你常給你媽媽信嗎﹖
        Do you often write to your mother?
    我爸爸也常給我寫信。
        My dad also often writes to me.


    Word usage: 想

The word 想 in Chinese carries various meanings:

 1. 想 + noun/noun-phrase = to miss somebody/something:

        丁雲很想家。
            Ding Yun misses her family very much.
        我很想我的爸爸媽媽。
            I miss my parents very much.
        你不想你的男朋友嗎﹖
            Don't you miss your boyfriend?
        你想不想她﹖
            Do you miss her?

 2. 想 + verb/verb-phrase = to want to do something:

        A: 你想去商店嗎﹖
            Do you want to go to the shop?
        B: 我不想去。
            I don't want to go.

        A: 你想不想學法語﹖
            Do you want to study French?
        B: 我也想學法語。
            I also want to study French.

 3. 想 + clause = to think/suppose something:

        我想她是中國人。
            I think she is Chinese.
        我想她爸爸媽媽都是大夫。
            I think her parents are both doctors.

    N.B. to negate a sentence with 想 in this capacity, put the negative
    adverb in the /subordinate clause/, not in the main clause as in
    English:

        我想她/不是/中國人。
            I don't think she is Chinese.
        but not 我不想她是中國人。

N.B. 想 as a verb can use the affirmative-negative question form /only/
in senses 1 and 2 above, not in 3.


    Word usage: 告訴

告訴 means "to tell". In English, the verb "tell" can mean to tell
somebody something, or to tell somebody /to do/ something. The Chinese
verb 告訴 can only be applied to the first of these patterns.

    e.g. 她告訴我她的工作。
        She told me her work.
    我告訴媽媽你是我的好朋友。
        I'll tell mother you are a good friend of mine.
    but not 我告訴他給我寫信。
        I told him to write to me.

Notice the element following the indirect object (i.e. 我, 媽媽) of 告訴
in the first and second sentences is either a noun, a noun-phrase or a
clause, but never a verb-phrase. The last sentence is wrong because it
uses the pattern "to tell somebody to do something" and hence uses a
verb-phrase for its direct object. In this case, we should use 叫 or 請
in place of 告訴 to make a correct sentence:

    我請他給我寫信。
        I asked him to write to me.


    The Numbers in Chinese

For Arabic numerals 0 to 10, the Chinese equivalents are:

    ○ (or 零), 一, 二, 三, 四, 五, 六, 七, 八, 九, 十

Further on, they are:

    十一 = 11, 十二 = 12, 十九 = 19
    二十 = 20, 二十一 = 21, 二十八 = 28
    三十 = 30, 四十 = 40, 九十 = 90, 九十九 = 99

    一百 = 100
    一百零一 = 101, 一百十 = 110, 一百十一 = 111
    三百二十七 = 327, 九百零九 = 909

    一千 = 1000
    一千零一 = 1001, 五千零四十 = 5040, 八千七百二十五 = 8725

    一萬 = 10,000
    四萬零八百零一 = 40,801

    一億 = 100,000,000

N.B.:

 1. Numbers like 15 are written e.g. 十五, not 一十五.

 2. A zero is pronounced or written when sandwiched by two digits: 101
    is 一百零一, and 3020 is 三千零二十. Notice the last zero in 3020 is
    /not/ pronounced because it is not between two other digits.

    If there are two or more zeroes in succession between two non-zero
    digits, as in 1001, only one is pronounced: 一千零一. However, if
    the two or more zeroes are separate and also sandwiched, as in
    40,801, each is read as normal: 四萬零八百零一.


    Grammar notes

 1. Measure words

    In Chinese, when a noun is modified by numerals, demonstrative
    pronouns such as 這 or 那, or interrogative pronouns such as 哪 or
    幾, a specific measure word should be placed between the noun and
    its modifier(s):

        三本書, 十五個學生, 那個老師, 哪個圖書館, 幾本詞典

 2. 幾 and 多少

    Both of these can be used to mean "how many" or "how much". Whereas
    幾 should be used with a measure word, 多少 can be used either with
    or without a measure word for the noun it modifies.

        你有幾本詞典﹖
        你有多少(本)詞典﹖

    The measure word 本 is a must for the first sentence, but only
    optional in the second.

    Also, when 幾 is used, the expected answer is usually under 10,
    whereas 多少 can be used whether one expects a large or small answer.

        你們大學有多少學生﹖
        你家有幾個人﹖

 3. Chinese verbs that take direct and indirect objects

    As in English, some verbs in Chinese can take two objects: direct
    object (usually a thing) and indirect object (usually a person).

        王老師教我們語法。

    In this sentence, 教 is a verb that takes 我們 as the indirect
    object and 法語 as the direct object. Generally the indirect goes
    before the direct object. Some other verbs that work the same way
    include 還, 告訴 and 問.

    Not all Chinese verbs can take two objects: it would be wrong to say
    他買我一本書 (He bought me a book), or 她寫我一封信 (She wrote me a
    letter). The correct way of saying these would be to use 給, as in
    他給我買一本書 and 她給我寫一封信.

 4. Adjectives as modifiers

    When an adjective modifies a noun, it is placed directly before the
    noun as in English:

        新書
            new book
        好朋友
            good friend

    However, when the adjective modifier is made up of two or more
    syllables, the particle 的 is usually inserted between the modifier
    and the noun it modifies:

        很新的書
            very new book
        很好的朋友
            very good friend


    Word usage: 也 and 還

也 is used to mean "the same" as the previous statement. Hence the
relationship between the statement introduced by 也 and the previous one
is a /parallel/ relationship. 還, on the other hand, introduces an
/additional/ element to the previous statement.

    e.g. 你有一個問題﹐我也有一個問題。
        You have a question; I also have a question. The two are
        parallel here.
    我還有一個問題。
        I have already had some questions, but I still have one more.
        This is /in addition to/ the previous ones.

Under certain circumstances, 也 and 還 are interchangeable, but with
different emphasis:

    王老師教我們漢字和語法﹐他還教我們口語。
    王老師教我們漢字和語法﹐他也教我們口語。

Although both sentences can be roughly translated as "Professor Wang
teaches us Chinese characters and grammar; he also teaches us
conversation", their emphasis is different: the first sentence stresses
the fact that Wang teaches conversation /in addition to/ the other
subjects he teaches, whereas the second simply enumerates the three
subjects he teaches without prioritization.


    Grammar notes

 1. 的 construction

    A modifier (normally either a noun, a pronoun, a verb or an
    adjective) with the word 的 can function as a noun or noun-phrase in
    a sentence, and can stand by itself if the context is clear:

        這條裙子是我姐姐的。
            This skirt is my sister's. Noun + 的)
        哪本詞典是你的﹖
            Which dictionary is yours? Pronoun + 的
        你爸爸的車是白的嗎﹖
            Is your father's car a white one? Adjective + 的 
        你喝的是什麼茶﹖
            What sort of tea do you drink? Verb + 的

    These constructions normally involve the verb 是 (or 不是).

 2. Usage of 從

    從 + place word + 去 = to go from; 從 + place word + 來 = to come from.

        e.g. 你從哪兒來﹖
            Where did you come from?
        我從圖書館來。
            I came from the library.
        我們晚上從我家去劇場。
            We are going from my home to the theatre tonight.

 3. Noun/Pronoun + 這兒 / 那兒 = over here/there at ...'s place

    When a noun or pronoun is added to 這兒 or 那兒, they function as a
    place word or expression. Since one cannot say 我去她 (I went to
    her), one can say instead 我去她那兒 (I went to her place), because
    她那兒 is now regarded as a place expression. Similarly one cannot
    say 你的裙子在我 (Your skirt is with me), but one can say 你的裙子在
    我這兒 (Your skirt is with me). More examples:

        你的書在他那兒。
            Your book is at his place.
        我們都去姐姐那兒。
            We all went to my sister's place.
        老師來我這兒找她。
            The teacher is coming to my place to look for her.

    As is obvious, if the place or the person is away from the speaker,
    use 那兒; if the place is near the speaker or refers to the speaker
    himself or herself, use 這兒.

 4. 太 + adjective + 了

    This pattern is often used for emphatic purposes. An adjective is
    used between 太 and 了:

        太忙了﹗
            Too busy!
        太大了﹗
            Too big!

    The expression 太好了﹗, however, has a positive meaning, expressing
    satisfaction or admiration.


    Word study: 二 vs. 兩

These both mean "two", and are used as follows.

 1. When "2" is followed by a measure word, use 兩:

        兩個人, 兩本書, 增加了兩倍, 去了兩次 

 2. 二 should be used in a number greater than 10, even if it is
    followed by a measure word:

        二十二, 一百零二次, 十二個人, 五千八百六十二元 

    There are some more restrictions, though:

     1. Only 二 can be used before the character 十; before the
        character 百, 二 is usually employed but 兩 may also be used:

            二十, 二百二十五, 二百五十元 or 兩百五十元 

     2. For numbers like 千, 萬 or 億, 兩 is used more often than 二:

            兩千元 (also 二千元), 兩萬三千八, 兩億人口 

     3. If the number is greater than 百, 千, 萬, /i.e./ if there are
        more digits before 百, 千 or 萬, then put 二 instead of 兩 in
        front:

            四億二千萬, 三萬二千人, 五千二百元 


    Time

The following are ways of telling the time in Chinese:

    A: 現在幾點﹖
    B: 現在...
    兩點	2:00
    十點半 (or 十點三十分)	10:30
    三點一刻 (or 三點十五分)	3:15
    十二點三刻 (or 十二點四十五分)	12:45
    兩點差五分 (or 差五分兩點)	1:55
    五點二十分	5:20
    六點零五分	6:05
    七點三十五分	7:35

Some notes:

 1. When zero is flanked by two digits, it is normally read as 零, as in
    三點零八分 (3:08) or 十二點零三分 (12:03).

 2. When the minutes are greater than 10, the word 分 is optional:

        七點十五 or 七點十五分

 3. "This morning" is 今天上午, not for example 這個上午; "every
    afternoon" is 每天下午, not 每下午.


    Placement of time-words

A time-word or -expression is normally placed either after the subject
or at the beginning of a sentence:

    我們十點半上中文課
    十點半我們上中文課

Some notes:

 1. A time-word does not take a preposition:

        我三點下課
        but not 我在三點下課

 2. A time-word should not be placed at the end of a sentence:

        她晚上來
            She came in the evening.
        or 晚上她來
        but not 她來晚上

 3. If you have more than one time-word, the bigger unit goes before the
    smaller:

        今天晚上八點
            at 8 o'clock this evening

 4. If you have both time-word and place-word, usually the time-word
    goes first:

        我晚上八點在圖書館等你
        你哥哥現在在哪兒工作﹖
        明天你幾點在哪兒上課﹖
            When and where are you going to have your class tomorrow?

 5. Time-word + 的 + noun (time-words modifying nouns)

        A: 你想看幾點的電影﹖
            What show do you want to see? /literally/ What time's film
            do you want to see?
        B: 我想看中午十二點半的(電影)。
            I want to see the film at 12:30 at noon.

        A: 這是今天的報嗎﹖
            Is this today's paper?
        B: 不是今天的報﹐是昨天的。
            It isn't today's paper, it's yesterday's.


    The use of the time-words 以前 and 以後

When used by itself, 以前 means "previously" or "before" and 以後 means
"later", "afterwards" or "in the future":

    我以前是學生﹐現在是老師。
        I was a student before; now I am a teacher.
    你以前在哪兒工作﹖
        Where did you work before?
    以前我不住宿舍﹐現在住宿舍。
        I did not live in a dormitory before, but now I do.

When used together with a time-word or verb phrase, 以前 means
"before..." and 以後 means "after...":

    十點以前我不回家。
        I won't go home before 10.
    回家以前我在閱覽室看書。
        I read books in the reading-room before I go home.
    來美國以後他在這兒工作。
        He has been working here after he came to America.
    十點半以後你在宿舍作什麼﹖
        What do you do in your dorm after 10:30?

N.B. When 以前 or 以後 is used together with a time-word or verb phrase
to mean "before" or "after", the word order is exactly the opposite of
the English equivalent:

    四點以前
        before 4 o'clock
    下課以前
        before the class is over
    明天晚上以後
        after tomorrow evening (or night)
    回宿舍以後
        after returning to the dormitory


    A 跟 B (一起) + verb/verb-phrase

跟 as a preposition means "with", and 一起 means "together". This
pattern is used to indicate that A and B do something together. Here 跟
can be replaced with 和 without changing the meaning; and the phrase 一
起 is optional.

    e.g. 我跟 (or 和) 她去看電影。
        I go to see a film with her.
    我跟她一起去看電影。
        She and I go to see a film together.)
    晚上你們跟誰一起去劇場﹖
        With whom are you going to the theatre tonight?

    A: 晚上你有事兒嗎﹖跟我一起去看京劇﹐好嗎﹖
        Do you have anything to do tonight? Come with me to the Beijing
        opera!
    B: 我不想跟你去﹐我想跟我男朋友一起去。
        I don't want to go with you, I want to go with my boyfriend.

N.B. This pattern of A 跟 B (一起) is always placed /before/ the main
verb in the sentence. Hence the following sentence, with English word
order, is wrong:

    我想去跟我男朋友一起。
        I want to go together with my boyfriend.


    Alternative Questions using 還是

In Chinese, an alternative question is formed by using 還是 to connect
two choices, which can be nouns, noun phrases, verbs, verb phrases, or
clauses:

    你喜歡紅茶還是綠茶﹖ (nouns)
    這本書是你的還是她的﹖ (noun phrases)
    下午你來還是不來﹖ (verbs)
    你要聽古典音樂還是聽現代音樂﹖ (verb phrases)
    今天晚上你來我這兒還是我去你那兒﹖ (clauses)

Note:

 1. the two items connected by 還是 are normally parallel in structure; and

 2. as with affirmative-negative questions and questions with
    interrogative words, alternative questions do not have 嗎 at the end. 


    Pivotal Sentences with 請, 讓, 叫

In Chinese a sentence can contain several verbs. A pivotal sentence is
one in which the object of the first verb is at the same time the
subject of the following verb. This object therefore functions as a
pivot, connecting the two verb clauses in the sentence.

The first verb in a pivotal sentence is often a causative verb (to cause
something to happen) such as 請, 讓 or 叫. All three carry the meaning
of asking somebody to do something. Of the three, 請 is the most polite;
讓 is less so, and 叫 is the least polite. So watch out for the
occasions when these verbs can be used appropriately. Observe:

    學生請王老師介紹中國音樂。
        The students asked Professor Wang to introduce Chinese music.
    老師讓學生每天寫漢字。
        The teacher asked students to write Chinese characters every day.
    爸爸叫孩子學中文。
        Dad asked his child to study Chinese.

Notice that although the English equivalents all employ "to ask", the
Chinese sentences use different words to indicate various degrees of
politeness.

Note:

 1. Besides the use of 請 above (meaning "to ask someone to do
    something"), 請 can also be used to mean "to invite":

        我們請他來吃晚飯。
            We invited him to dinner.
        你想請他今天晚上去看電影嗎﹖
            Do you want to invite him to a movie tonight?

 2. To negate a pivotal sentence, put the negative adverb 不 /before the
    first verb/:

        我的大夫不讓我喝酒。
            My doctor doesn't let me drink alcohol.
        他們不叫我去看電影。
            They did not invite me to go to the pictures.


    Word usage: 別 and 不要

別 and 不要 both mean "do not". They can be used in negative
/imperative/ sentences with or without a subject. They are placed
between the subject (if present) and the verb or adjective:

    (你) 別 (or 不要) 告訴他﹗
    別喝酒﹗ 別去那兒﹗
    不要吸煙﹗ 下午不要去﹗

Neither of these can be used to indicate negation in declarative
sentences. It is wrong to say 爸爸別請他走. One can say instead 爸爸不請
他走.


    Expressions for the date, week, month and year

 1. 年, year
     1. 去年 = last year; 今年 = this year; 明年 = next year

     2. 一九九七年, 一九九八年, ...

     3. 一年 = one year; 兩年 = two years (not 二年); 三年 = three years
        每年 = every year; 五年半 = five-and-a-half years

 2. 月, month
     1. 上個月= last month; 這個月 = this month; 下個月 = next month

     2. 一月 = January; 二月 = February (not 兩月); ... 二十月 = December

 3. 星期, week
     1. 上 (個) 星期 = last week; 這 (個) 星期 = this week; 下 (個) 星期
        = next week

     2. 星期一 = Monday; 星期二 = Tuesday; ... 星期六 = Saturday; 星期日
        or 星期天 = Sunday

     3. 一 (個) 星期 = one week; 兩 (個) 星期 = two weeks (not 二 (個)
        星期); 三 (個) 星期 = three weeks; 四個半星期 = four-and-a-half
        weeks; ... 每 (個) 星期 = every week

 4. 日 / 號 / 天 date

    Use 日 or 號 for a /specific/ date. Usually 日 is used in written
    and formal language and 號 is used in conversation. The word 天
    should be used in /counting/ the number of days:

     1. 作天 = yesterday; 今天 = today; 明天 = tomorrow

     2. 一號; 二號 (not 兩號); ... 三十一號
        四月六號; 十月二十五日; ...

     3. 一天 = one day; 兩天 = two days (not 二天); ... 半天 = half a
        day; 每天 = every day

Some notes:

 1. When there are several units, the bigger comes first and the
    calendar date comes before the day of the week:

        一九九六年十一月二十五號星期一
        一七八九年七月十四日

 2. Notice the following special ways of expressing the date and month:

        今年五月
            the May of this year (whether it has passed or not)
        去年八月
            the August of last year
        明年二月
            the February of next year

        這 (個) 星期五
            the Friday of this week (whether it has passed or not)
        上 (個) 星期一
            the Monday of last week
        下 (個) 星期四
            the Thursday of next week

    Note the English phrase "last Monday" may therefore be rendered as
    這個星期一, if Monday has already passed and the phrase is therefore
    referring to Monday of this week. The same applies for future days,
    and for months.


    Verb or verb-phrase as a modifier for a noun

Two points need to be observed when using a verb or verb-phrase as a
modified to form a relative clause:

 1. Unlike in English, all modifiers go /before/ the element they modify
    in Chinese:

        他喝的水不很乾淨
        這是我朋友送我的禮物

 2. The word 的 has to be inserted between the modifier and the element
    it modifies:

        我下午看的電影很有意思。
            The film I saw this afternoon was very interesting.
        給你開門的那個人是我妹妹。
            The person who opened the door for you was my younger sister.
        跟他跳舞的姑娘是我的同學。
            The girl who danced with him was my classmate.


    Other grammar notes

 1. Sentences with an adjectival predicate

    The verb 是 is not normally used in the predicate for a sentence
    where the main element of the predicate is an adjective:

        我們今天很高興。
        她的絲線衫太小。
        那個服務員非常年輕。

    In an affirmative sentence of this type, if the adjective is not
    preceded by adverbs such as 真, 太, 非常 or 更, it is usually
    qualified by the adverb 很. In such cases, 很 does not really mean
    "very"; 他很忙 and 他忙 mean virtually the same.

    Also, adverbs such as 很, 常, 也, 非常, 太 or 更 /cannot/ be used in
    affirmative-negative sentences of this type:

        你高興不高興﹖ but not 你很高興不很高興﹖
        她年輕不年輕﹖ but not 她非常高興不非常高興﹖
        你去不去﹖ but not 你也去不去﹖

 2. 祝你 vs 祝賀你

    In general, 祝你 is used to extend well-wishes /in advance/ whereas
    祝賀你 is used to congratulate someone on something /already
    accomplished/:

        祝你生日好﹗ (One can say this on the day, or in advance.)
        祝賀你﹗ (Say this only when something has already been
        accomplished.)

 3. Reduplication of verbs

    To indicate that an action is only of a short duration or to soften
    the tone of a sentence in order to make it less formal, a verb can
    be repeated:

        我給你們介紹介紹。 (Notice the pattern is ABAB, not AABB.)
        你們想去看看她嗎﹖
        讓我想想。

    In the case of a monosyllabic verb, the character 一 can be inserted:

        讓我想一想。
        我們都想看一看她。

    Repeating a verb has the same effect as using the adverb 一下兒
    after the verb:

        用一下兒 = 用用 = 用一用
        看一下兒 = 看看 = 看一看
        介紹一下兒 = 介紹介紹


    Position words

Words such as 上邊, 左邊, 前邊, 中間, 對面 are position words. Some of
the basic syllables are:

 	上 - up	 
左 - left 	中 - middle	 右 - right
 	下 - down	 
 
前 - front	 	 裡 - in
後 - back	 	 外 - out

Usually, add 邊 to make "on the left", "above", "outside" etc.

Position words can be used in two ways. Compare:

 1. Noun (+ 的) + position word:

        車(的)外邊
            outside the car
        房子(的)後邊
            behind the house
        桌子(的)對面
            opposite the table 

 2. Position word + 的 + noun (here the 的 is /mandatory/).

        外邊的車
            the car outside (i.e. the car which is outside)
        後邊的房子
            the house behind (the house which is behind)
        對面的桌子
            the opposite table (the table which is opposite / across the
            way) 

Notes:

 1. When 上邊, 下邊, 裡邊 and 外邊 are modified by other nouns, the
    character 邊 can be omitted:

        房子(的)裡(邊)
            inside the house
        桌子(的)上(邊)
            on the table
        教室(的)外(邊)
            outside the classroom

 2. Do /not/ use 裡邊 in the following two cases:

     1. After geographical names such as 中國, 北京 etc:

            她在北京學習漢語。
                She studies Chinese in Beijing.
            but not 她在北京裡邊學習漢語。

            美國有很多大學。
                There are many universities in America.
            but not 美國裡邊有很多大學。

     2. In a phrase of the form "在 + place, building or organisation":

            我在銀行工作。
                I work in a bank.
            but not 我在銀行裡邊工作。

            他們在閱覽室看書。
                They are reading books in the reading-room.
            but not 他們在閱覽室裡邊看書。


    Patterns for Location

There are three ways to indicate the location of something, using 在, 有
and 是 respectively and with different meanings:

 1. To show that there is something in a certain place: 有

    Position word + 有 + indefinite noun:

        後邊有什麼﹖
            What is behind?
        後邊有一個車房。
            There is a garage behind.
        我們家對面有一個公園。
            Across from our home, there is a park. 

 2. To show that certain things exist in certain places: 在

    Definite noun + 在 + position word:

        花園在哪兒﹖
            Where is the garden?
        花園在我們家後邊。
            The garden is behind our house.
        花園在車房 (的) 右邊。
            The garden is to the right of the garage. 

 3. To identify something that is known to exist at a certain place: 是

    Position word + 是 + definite/indefinite noun:

        你們家後邊是什麼﹖
            What's behind your house?
        我們家後邊是一個花園。
            Behind our house is a garden.
        他們家前邊是學院的圖書館。
            In front of their house is the college library. 


    Progressive aspect of an action

To show an action which is, was or will be going on, use one of the
following patterns:

    她在休息。
        She is resting.
    她正休息。
    她正在休息。

    她休息呢。
    她在休息呢。
    她正休息呢。
    她正在休息呢。

Notes:

 1. All the above sentences mean the same, stylistic differences excepted.

 2. The progressive aspect can be applied not only to the present, but
    also to past and future actions:

        她現在正在休息。
            She is resting now. /present progressive/
        我去的時候﹐她正在休息。
            When I went there, she was resting. /past progressive/
        我明天去看她的時候﹐她一定正在休息。
            When I go to see her tomorrow, she will surely be resting.
            /future progressive/ 

 3. As shown above, either 在, 正 or 正在 can be placed before a verb to
    indicate the progressive aspect of an action.

 4. Alternatively, 呢 can be placed at the end of the sentence to
    perform the same function. Sometimes 呢 can be used together with
    在, 正 or 正在.

 5. The negative form of the progressive aspect is indicated by 沒有,
    not 不, before the verb; and it can be shortened to 沒 alone if it
    is not at the end of a sentence or a short answer. Otherwise the
    full form of 沒有 must be used:

        她沒(有)休息﹐她在看報。
        她在休息嗎﹖沒有﹐她在看報。(or simply 沒有)

 6. If both the 在 of the progressive aspect and the 在 of location
    exist in a sentence, only one should be used:

        她正在房間里休息。
        but not 她正在在房間里休息。


    Subject-predicate constructions as modifiers

An entire subject-predicate construction (a sentence or clause) such as
我給她打電話, 他今天買, 我們去北京參觀 can be used as a modifier for a
noun. When used this way, there must be a 的 inserted between the
construction and the noun it modifies:

    我給她打電話的時候﹐她正在吃飯。
        When I called her, she was eating.
    他今天買的花兒很漂亮。
        The flowers he bought today are very pretty.
    請你們看我們去北京參觀的照片。
        Please take a look at the pictures we took while visiting Beijing.
    這是誰給你寫的信﹖
        Who wrote this letter to you? 

The subject-predicate construction always goes immediately before the
的, which goes immediately before the noun to be modified.


    Word usage: 參觀 vs. 訪問

Both terms can be translated as "to visit" in English. However, while 參
觀 implies 觀 (to see), 訪問 stresses 問 (to ask). Hence 參觀 really
implies observation while visiting and 訪問 means to visit people with
specific purpose such as interviews. 參觀 can be followed by places but
not people; whereas 訪問 can take either, but most commonly people.

    參觀/訪問學校
    訪問他/這個國家的總統


    Grammar Notes

 1. Measure word 些

    些 is a measure word showing indefinite quantity. It is usually used
    after demonstrative pronouns such as 這, 那, 哪 and after the
    numeral 一:

        一些
            some
        這些
            these
        那些
            those
        哪些
            which (plural)

    Don't attempt to mix 些 with definite measures. It is wrong to say
    這些三本詞典 (these three dictionaries); one can only say 這三本詞典.

 2. 是 . . . 的 construction

    Earlier we saw the construction with simple nouns, pronouns or
    adjectives:

        這本書是中文的。= 這本書中文的書。
        那條裙子是妹妹的。= 那條裙子是妹妹的裙子。
        姐姐的大衣是黑的。= 姐姐的大衣是黑的大衣。

    But the 是 . . . 的 construction can also be used with prepositional
    phrases and even whole verbal constructions:

        那些點心是給丁雲的。= 那些點心是丁雲的點心。
            Those pastries are for Ding Yun.
        這束花兒是我給她買的。= 這束花兒我給她買的花兒。
            This bunch of flowers is the one I bought for her.
        這本書是我在大學的圖書館借的。= 這本書是我在大學的圖書館借的書。
            This book is the one I borrowed from the university library. 


    The use of the Complement of Degree


      What is a complement?

A complement is a word or phrase attached after a verb to explain or
complete the meaning of the action. Complements are used to show
duration, extent, quantity, degree, result, direction or possibility of
an action. Complements always appear *after* the verbs they modify.

We know that in Chinese modifiers are generally placed before the words
they modify; so why do complements appear after? It's because Chinese
word order often observes the time sequence in which an action occurs.
Notice, for example:

    昨天晚上我們從書店去電影院。
        Yesterday evening we went to the cinema from the bookshop. 

Since one has to leave the bookshop before going to the cinema, the
Chinese sentence follows this time sequence. Similarly, since a verbal
action has to take place first, before one can see its extent or result,
the complement placed after the verb observes this time sequence.


      The complement of degree

This is used to show the extent or degree of an action. Normally
adjectives are used for the complement, and the structural particle 得
is used to connect the verb and its complement:

    他學習得怎麼樣﹖
        How is he studying?
    他學習得很好。
        He's studying very well.

The basic patterns for the complement of degree are as follows:

 1. Verb without object: V + 得 + adjective

        你工作得不錯。

 2. Verb with object: V + O + V + 得 + adjective

        我妹妹唱民歌唱得很好。

 3. Verb with preposed object: O + V + 得 + adjective

        他們中文學得很好。

Place 不 /before the adjective/ to make the negative:

 4. V + 得 + 不 + adjective

        她歌唱得不好﹐ 舞也跳得不好。

Questions are formed as follows:

 1. . . . 得 adjective 不 adjective?

        你開車開得快不快﹖

 2. . . . 得怎麼樣﹖

        你中文學得怎麼樣﹖

 3. . . . 得 adjective 嗎﹖

        你游泳游得好嗎﹖

Note that the complement of degree cannot be used with verbs such as 有,
在 or 是, since those verbs normally do not denote actions.


    The difference between 呢 and 吧 as sentence-ending particles

Either term can be used to soften the tone when placed at the end of a
question. However, they differ in usage.


      In questions

呢 is primarily used to indicate a mood of enquiry. It may appear in
questions with interrogative words such as 什麼 or 哪兒;
affirmative-negative questions such as 有沒有呢﹖好吃不好吃呢﹖; or
alternative questions with 還是, such as 吃面包還是火腿呢﹖

吧, on the other hand, is employed at the end of a question to indicate
a mood of uncertainty or speculation on the part of the speaker: 在這兒
停車吧﹖ 你不知道吧﹖


      In affirmative statements

呢 in this case is used to indicate the progressive aspect of an action
(e.g. 她學中文呢), or to affirm some fact, sometimes with exaggeration
(e.g. 晚上電影九點才開始呢。 從這兒去要走三天呢。)

吧 is often added at the end of an imperative sentence to soften the
tone, as in 我們走吧。 你再想想吧。


    The use of optative verbs

Optative or auxiliary verbs are those placed before other verbs to
express intention, wishes, possibility etc.

 1. To express /subjective wish/, /desire/ or /request/:

     1. 要 + verb = to want to

            我要喝橘子水。

     2. 想 + verb = would like to

            你想看電影嗎﹖

 2. To express /objective necessity/:

     1. 要 + verb = to have to (especially in questions)

            我明天要來嗎﹖
                Do I have to come tomorrow?
            我們要去了。
                We have to go. 

     2. 不用 + verb = don't have to

            你明天不用來。
                You don't have to come tomorrow.

 3. To express /ability/ or /skill acquired/:

     1. 能 + verb = can, be able to

            你現在能看中文報紙嗎﹖

     2. 可以 + verb = can, be able to

            你們一個星期可以學幾課﹖

     3. 會 + verb = can, be able to

            他們都會游泳嗎﹖

 4. To express /ability depending on circumstances/:

     1. 能 + verb = can, be able to

            你明天能來嗎﹖

     2. 可以 + verb = can, be able to

            你今天晚上可以1給他打電話嗎﹖

    Note, in both cases use 不能 for negative sentences.

 5. To express /permission/:

     1. 能 + verb = may, be permitted to

            我能在這兒停車嗎﹖
            你不能 (or 不可以) 在這兒停車。

     2. 可以 + verb = may, be permitted to

            我可以在這兒吸煙嗎﹖
            你不可以 (or 不能) 在這兒吸煙。

 6. To express /possibility/ or /probability/:

     1. 會 + verb = be likely to, will probably

            你明天會再來嗎﹖
            今天晚上不會下雨。 

 7. To express /need arising from moral or factual necessity/:

     1. 應該 + verb = should, ought to

            你們學得不錯﹐應該去中國。
            他們不應該翻譯那本書。

Note:

 1. To make a negation, put the negative word 不 or 沒有 before the
    optative verb:

        他們不想給圖書館打電話。

 2. To form an affirmative-negative question, alternate the optative
    verb instead of the main verb in the sentence:

        你會不會唱中國民歌﹖
        but not 你會唱不唱中國民歌﹖

 3. It is possible to use more than one optative verb in a sentence:

        你是北京人﹐應該會唱京劇。


    The use of adverbs 就 and 才

就 and 才 are often used before the main verb to indicate the speaker's
attitude as to whether the action expressed by the main verb is earlier
(就) or later (才) than expected:

    他們三點就來了﹐可是你們現在才來。
        They came as early as 3 o'clock, but you came as late as now.
    我們是老朋友﹐我們十年前就認識了。
        We are old friends, and we came to know each other as early as
        ten years ago.
    她不是我的同學﹐我上個星期才認識她。
        She is not a classmate of mine. I just got to know her a week ago. 

Compare the following sentences:

    今年我們就想去中國學習。
        (The speaker indicates their eagerness in going to China as soon
        as this year.)
    今年我們才想去中國學習。
        (The speaker indicates that, although going to China this year,
        they should have gone earlier.) 

As shown in the above sentences, when there is a time-word in a
sentence, 就 and 才 should be placed after it; when there is an optative
verb, on the other hand, 就 and 才 should be placed before it. Here is
the pattern:

    Time-word + 就/才 + optative verb + main verb
    她今年就可以去中國﹐我明年才可以去中國。
    他們今天下午三點就能出發﹐我們要晚上八點才能走。


    Word usage: 或者, 還是

Both of these conjunctions can be translated as "or" in English, but
they differ in usage: in general, 或者 is used in non-interrogative
sentences to indicate a choice:

    我妹妹想研究音樂或者文學。

還是, on the other hand, is more often than not reserved for alternative
questions:

    你上午去﹐還是下午去﹖

It can also be used in subordinate clauses with verbs such as 知道, 告訴
etc:

請告訴我這個人是老師還是學生﹖
我不知道她是老師還是學生。

In cases in which both 或者 and 還是 can appear in questions, there are
some subtle differences in their anticipations and tones:

     1. A: 你想去中國還是日本﹖
        B: 我想去中國。

     2. A: 你想去中國或者日本嗎﹖
        B: 我想去﹐我兩個地方都想去。

In dialogue 1, A asks an alternative question which anticipates a choice
from the answer. The two terms with 還是 are mutually exclusive. In
dialogue 2, the question is a general one using 嗎 at the end. It does
not anticipate a strict choice from the answer, so B can give a general
answer: 我想去 -- yes, I do -- and then add his more specific thought:
我兩個地方都想去. The two items with 或者 in the question are therefore
not mutually exclusive.

Sometimes, however, 還是 can also be used in a non-interrogative
sentence. For instance:

    去看朋友﹐還是去看電影﹐他一時(??)不定主意。

Notice in the sentence the tone is still somehow interrogative,
compelling 他 to make a choice. In contrast, 或者 in this case can only
convey a sort of explanatory note:

    你去﹐還是她來﹐你明天一定要作決定。 (interrogative)
    或者你去﹐或者她來﹐沒有其他選擇。 (explanatory)


    了解, 知道, 認識 and 懂

The meanings of the four terms here overlap.

Both 了解 and 知道 can mean "to know". However, 了解 implies some level
of understanding and comprehension of what one knows. Therefore 了解 can
be understood as a deeper or better knowing than 知道. Compare:

    你了解 (or 知道) 這個學校嗎﹖
    我不知道他是誰的孩子。(Here one can not use 了解.)

認識 is used to indicate that one can recognise this as this and not
others. It can also involve the process of acquiring such an ability.

    A: 哦﹐我認識她﹗
        Oh, I know her!
    B: 你是在哪兒認識她的﹖
        Where did you get to know her? 

懂, on the other hand, is a direct equivalent of "to understand". Its
definition is not as broad as that of 了解 (to know and understand) and
is different from that of 知道 (to know).

    1. 你懂他說的漢語嗎﹖
    2. 你知道他叫甚麼名字嗎﹖
    3. 你了解他嗎﹖

Of these, sentence 3 wants to know more detailed information about him
than sentence 2, and sentence 2 wants more detailed information than
sentence 1.


    The use of the Perfect Aspect


      Basic concept

The aspect particle 了 is added to the end of a verb to indicate the
completion of an action. In general, Chinese perfect aspect is
equivalent to perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect or future
perfect) in English. So, the completion of an action can take place in
the past or in the future. For instance:

    A: 你下了課去哪兒﹖
    B: 我下了課去圖書館。

On the other hand, a past action is not always followed by the aspect
particle 了, if it is a simple statement or a habitual action and there
is no need to emphasise its completion:

    去年他常常去書店。
    以前我住在學生宿舍。


      Basic patterns

 1. Affirmative sentence

        Subject + verb + 了 (+ object)
        e.g. 電影開始了。 我買了兩本書。

 2. Negative sentence (note 了 is dropped here)

        Subject + 沒(有) + verb (+ object)
        or subject + 還沒(有) + verb (+ 呢)
        e.g. 我沒有買書。 電影還沒開始呢。

 3. Interrogative sentence

        Subject + verb + 了 (+ object) + 沒有﹖
        or Subject + verb + 了嗎﹖
        or Subject + verb + 沒 + verb (+ object)﹖ (here the verb is
        usually monosyllabic)
        e.g. 你今天買了詞典沒有﹖ 她來了嗎﹖ 你們談沒談這個問題﹖


      Notes

 1. If the verb has an object and there is no adverbial in the sentence,
    the object should normally carry some modifiers (e.g. numeral +
    measure-word or other attributives). Otherwise the sentence sounds
    incomplete:

        我買了三本書。
        我在書店里買了書。
        but not simply 我買了書。

 2. If a sentence carries several verbs and the actions indicated by
    those verbs are related, then the perfect aspect particle 了 is
    usually placed after the /last/ verb.

        a. 我用中文給媽媽寫了一封信。
        b. 他們昨天進城買了一些中文詞典。

    In sentence a, "write" is related to "use" because the letter is
    written by using Chinese; in sentence b, similarly, "buy" is related
    to "enter the city" because the purpose of entering the city is to
    buy the dictionaries. Compare the above sentences with the
    following, with a different structure:

        我下了課去圖書館。

    Here "class is over" (下課) and "go to the library" are unrelated.
    They are contained in the sentence simply to indicate their
    sequence. Hence it is wrong to say

        我下課去了圖書館。

 3. When the verb is reduplicated, the perfect aspect particle 了 is
    placed /before/ the reduplicated verb:

        我試了試那條裙子﹐真漂亮﹗


    又, 再 and 還

All three of these adverbs indicate the repetition of an action, like
the English "again". They differ in usage, however:

Whereas 又 indicates a repetition of an action that has already taken
place, 再 implies a repetition of an action in the future. Also, 再 is
only used in /declarative/ sentences, plus questions ending in 好嗎:

    昨天他來晚了﹐今天他又來晚了。
        (repetition in the past)
    你今天來晚了﹔明天再來晚﹐我們就不讓你進來了。
        (repetition in the future)
    你再喝一點兒橘子水﹐好嗎﹖

Also, 又 can be used for the repetition of a periodic action or
occurrence, even though it has not yet taken place:

    明天又是星期一﹐我們又要上課。
    新年又要來了。

還, on the other hand, usually expresses a future repetition:

    你明天還來嗎﹖

It can also be used in an interrogative or declarative sentence with an
optative verb. In this situation, it is placed before the optative verb
and an optional 再 can be placed after:

    A: 你明年還能(再)教我們嗎﹖
    B: 我明年還可以(再)教你們。


    Use of the modal particle 了


      Basic concept

The modal particle 了 is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate
that the event referred to took place in the past. The difference
between 了 as modal particle and 了 to indicate perfect aspect is that
the latter only shows the completion of the verb, whereas the former
shows the completion of the whole sentence or event, implying some
/change of situation/.

    他買了書了。

The first 了 in the sentence above indicates only the completion of the
action of 買書, whereas the second 了 marks some change of situation on
the part of 他 as a result of the completion of the book-buying process:
originally he did not have the book, but now he has.


      Basic patterns

(Please compare against the patterns for the perfect aspect in the
previous section.)

 1. Affirmative sentence

        Subject + verb (+ object) + 了
        e.g. 他們看足球賽了。

 2. Negative sentence (note 了 is dropped here)

        Subject + 沒 (有) + verb (+ object)
        e.g. 他們沒看足球賽。

 3. Interrogative sentence

        Subject + verb + object + 了沒有﹖
        or Subject + verb + object + 了嗎﹖
        or Subject + verb + 沒 + verb + object﹖ (here the verb is
        usually monosyllabic)
        e.g. 他們看足球賽了沒有﹖
        他們看足球賽了嗎﹖
        他們看沒看足球賽﹖


      Notes

 1. As is obvious, when there is no object, one cannot tell the perfect
    aspect 了 from the modal particle 了. In such a case, 了 can be
    regarded as fulfilling both functions:

        她來了。 我們懂了。

 2. A simple statement about events that happened in the past does not
    require a 了 at the end of the sentence:

        我昨天下午看足球賽﹐晚上沒出去。


    Sequential actions

To indicate that two actions take place, one immediately after the
other, we use the pattern

    Subject + verb + 了 (以後) 就 + verb ...
    e.g. 我們辦了簽証(以後)就回家。
    明天吃了早飯(以後)我們就出發。

The above pattern can be used for /future/ actions as well. To indicate
that both actions took place in the past, the particle 了 has to be
inserted at the end of the sentence:

    我們辦了簽証以後就回家了。
    他們早上沒吃早飯就走了。