Introduction.xml 9.9 KB

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  4. <chapter xmlns="http://docbook.org/ns/docbook" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"
  5. version="5.0">
  6. <title>Introduction</title>
  7. <subtitle>ABOUT CHINESE</subtitle>
  8. <section>
  9. <title>The Chinese Languages</title>
  10. <para> We find it perfectly natural to talk about a language called 'Chinese.' We say, for
  11. example, that the people of China speak different dialects of Chinese, and that
  12. Confucius wrote in an ancient form of Chinese. On the other hand, we would never think
  13. of saying that the people of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal speak dialects of one
  14. language, and that Julius Caesar wrote in an ancient form of that language, but the
  15. facts are almost exactly parallel. </para>
  16. <para>In terms, then, of what we think of as a language when closer to home, 'Chinese' is
  17. not one language, but a family of languages. The language of Confucius is part-way up
  18. the stem of the family tree. Like Latin, it is a language which lived on as a literary
  19. language long after its death as the language of the classics. The seven modern
  20. languages of China, traditionally the 'dialects,' are on the branches of the tree. They
  21. share as strong a family resemblance as do Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, and
  22. are about as different from one another. </para>
  23. <para>The predominant language o£ China is now known as <foreignphrase
  24. xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">pǔtōnghuà</foreignphrase>, or 'Standard Chinese'
  25. literally 'the common speech.' The more traditional term, still used in Taiwan, is
  26. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guóyǔ</foreignphrase>, or 'Mandarin',
  27. literally 'the national language.' Standard Chinese is spoken natively by almost
  28. two-thirds of the population and throughout :te greater part of the country.</para>
  29. </section>
  30. <section>
  31. <title>Standard Chinese</title>
  32. <para>Standard Chinese The term 'Standard Chinese' is often used more narrowly to refer to
  33. the true national language which is emerging. This national language, which is already
  34. the language of all national broadcasting, is based primarily on the Peking dialect but
  35. takes on elements from other dialects of Standard Chinese and even from other Chinese
  36. languages. Like many national languages, it is more widely understood than spoken, and
  37. often spoken with some concessions to local speech,particularly in pronunciation. </para>
  38. <para>The Chinese languages and their dialects differ far more in pronunciation than in
  39. grammar or vocabulary. What distinguishes Standard Chinese most from the other Chinese
  40. languages, for example, is that it has the fewest tones and the fewest final
  41. consonants.</para>
  42. <para> The remaining six Chinese languages, together spoken by approximately a quarter of
  43. the population, are tightly grouped in the southeast, below the Yangtze River. These
  44. are: the <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">wú</foreignphrase> language
  45. (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">吴</foreignphrase>),including the ' Shanghai
  46. dialect.' Hunanese (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">湘</foreignphrase>
  47. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">xiāng</foreignphrase>); the Gan language
  48. (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">籍</foreignphrase>
  49. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">gàn</foreignphrase>), spoken in Kangsi
  50. province; Cantonese (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">粤</foreignphrase>
  51. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yuè</foreignphrase>), the language of
  52. Kuangtong province and widely spoken in Chinese communities in the United States;
  53. Fukienese (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">闽</foreignphrase>
  54. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǐn</foreignphrase>), a variant of which is
  55. spoken by the majority of Taiwan and hence called Taiwanese; and Hakka (<foreignphrase
  56. xml:lang="cmn-Hani">客家</foreignphrase>
  57. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">kèjiā</foreignphrase>), spoken in a belt above
  58. the Cantonese area, as well as by a minority on Taiwan. Cantonese, Fukienese, and Hakka
  59. are also widely spoken throughout Southeast Asia.</para>
  60. <para>In addition to these Chinese languages, there are also non-Chinese languages spoken by
  61. minority ethnic groups. Some of these, such as Tibetan, are distantly related to the
  62. Chinese languages. Others, such as Mongolian, are entirely unrelated. </para>
  63. </section>
  64. <section>
  65. <title>Some characteristics of Chinese</title>
  66. <para>Some Characteristics of Chinese Perhaps the most striking feature of Chinese to us is
  67. the use of 'tones' to distinguish the meaning of individual syllables. All languages,
  68. and Chinese is no exception, make use of sentence intonation to indicate how whole
  69. sentences are to be understood. In English, for example, the rising pattern in 'He's
  70. gone?' tells us that it is meant as a question. The Chinese tones, however, are quite a
  71. different matter. They belong to individual syllables, not to the sentence as a whole.
  72. Each syllable of Standard Chinese has one of four distinctive tones as an inherent part.
  73. The tone does just as much to distinguish the syllable from other possible syllables as
  74. do the consonants and vowels. For example, the only difference between the verb 'to
  75. buy,' <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">买</foreignphrase>
  76. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǎi</foreignphrase>, and the verb 'to sell,'
  77. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">卖</foreignphrase>
  78. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mài</foreignphrase>, is the difference between
  79. the Low Tone and the Falling Tone, And yet these words are just as distinguishable as
  80. our words 'buy' and 'guy,' or 'buy' and 'boy.' Apart from the tones, the sound system of
  81. Standard Chinese is no more different from English than French is.</para>
  82. <para>The grammar of Standard Chinese is relatively simple. For one thing, it has no
  83. conjugations such as are found in many European languages. Chinese verbs have fewer
  84. forms than English verbs, and nowhere near as many irregularities. Chinese grammar
  85. relies heavily on word order, and often the word order is the same as in English: 'John
  86. loves Mary' versus 'Mary loves John.' For these reasons Chinese is not as difficult for
  87. Americans to learn to speak as one might think. </para>
  88. <para> It is often said that Chinese is a monosyllabic language. This notion contains a good
  89. deal of truth. It has been found that, on the average, every other word in ordinary
  90. conversation is a single-syllable word. Moreover, although most words in the dictionary
  91. have two syllables, and some have more, these words can almost always be broken down
  92. into single-syllable units of meaning, many of which can stand alone as words
  93. themselves</para>
  94. </section>
  95. <section>
  96. <title>Written Chinese</title>
  97. <para>Written Chinese Most languages with which we are familiar are written with an
  98. alphabet. The letters may be different from ours, as in the Greek alphabet, but the
  99. principle is the same: One letter for each consonant or vowel sound, more or less.
  100. Chinese, however, is written with 'characters' which stand for whole syllables. In fact,
  101. for whole syllables with particular meanings. There are only about thirteen hundred
  102. phonetically distinct syllables in everyday use, essentially one for each
  103. single-syllable unit of meaning. Chinese characters are often referred to as
  104. 'ideographs,' which suggests that they stand directly for ideas. But this is misleading;
  105. it is better to think of them as standing for the meaningful syllables of the spoken
  106. language.</para>
  107. <para>Minimal literacy in Chinese calls for knowing about a thousand characters. These
  108. thousand characters, in combination, give a reading vocabulary of several thousand
  109. words. Full literacy calls for knowing some three thousand characters. In order to
  110. reduce the amount of time needed to learn characters, there has been a vast extension in
  111. the People's Republic of China of the principle of character simplification, which has
  112. reduced the average number of strokes per character by half. </para>
  113. <para>One reason often given for the retention of characters is that they can be read, with
  114. the local pronunciation, by speakers of all the Chinese languages. Probably a stronger
  115. reason for their retention is that the characters help keep alive distinctions of
  116. meaning between words, which are fading in the spoken language. Against this, however,
  117. is the consideration that a Cantonese could learn to speak Standard Chinese, and read it
  118. alphabetically, at least as easily as he can learn several thousand characters. </para>
  119. <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">pīnyīn</foreignphrase> is used throughout
  120. this course to provide a simple written representation of pronunciation.</para>
  121. </section>
  122. </chapter>