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- <chapter xmlns="http://docbook.org/ns/docbook" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"
- version="5.0">
- <title>Introduction</title>
- <subtitle>ABOUT CHINESE</subtitle>
- <formalpara>
- <title>The Chinese Languages</title>
- <para> We find it perfectly natural to talk about a language called 'Chinese.' We say, for
- example, that the people of China speak different dialects of Chinese, and that
- Confucius wrote in an ancient form of Chinese. On the other hand, we would never think
- of saying that the people of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal speak dialects of one
- language, and that Julius Caesar wrote in an ancient form of that language, but the
- facts are almost exactly parallel. </para>
- </formalpara>
- <para>In terms, then, of what we think of as a language when closer to home, 'Chinese' is not
- one language, but a family of languages. The language of Confucius is part-way up the stem
- of the family tree. Like Latin, it is a language which lived on as a literary language long
- after its death as the language of the classics. The seven modern languages of China,
- traditionally the 'dialects,' are on the branches of the tree. They share as strong a family
- resemblance as do Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, and are about as different from
- one another. </para>
- <para>The predominant language o£ China is now known as <foreignphrase
- xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">pǔtōnghuà</foreignphrase>, or 'Standard Chinese' literally
- 'the common speech.' The more traditional term, still used in Taiwan, is <foreignphrase
- xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guóyǔ</foreignphrase>, or 'Mandarin', literally 'the national
- language.' Standard Chinese is spoken natively by almost two-thirds of the population and
- throughout :te greater part of the country.</para>
- <formalpara>
- <title>Standard Chinese</title>
- <para>Standard Chinese The term 'Standard Chinese' is often used more narrowly to refer to
- the true national language which is emerging. This national language, which is already
- the language of all national broadcasting, is based primarily on the Peking dialect but
- takes on elements from other dialects of Standard Chinese and even from other Chinese
- languages. Like many national languages, it is more widely understood than spoken, and
- often spoken with some concessions to local speech,particularly in pronunciation.
- </para>
- </formalpara>
- <para>The Chinese languages and their dialects differ far more in pronunciation than in grammar
- or vocabulary. What distinguishes Standard Chinese most from the other Chinese languages,
- for example, is that it has the fewest tones and the fewest final consonants.</para>
- <para> The remaining six Chinese languages, together spoken by approximately a quarter of the
- population, are tightly grouped in the southeast, below the Yangtze River. These are: the
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">wú</foreignphrase> language (<foreignphrase
- xml:lang="cmn-Hani">吴</foreignphrase>),including the ' Shanghai dialect.' Hunanese
- (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">湘</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">xiāng</foreignphrase>); the Gan language
- (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">籍</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">gàn</foreignphrase>), spoken in Kangsi province;
- Cantonese (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">粤</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yuè</foreignphrase>), the language of Kuangtong
- province and widely spoken in Chinese communities in the United States; Fukienese
- (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">闽</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǐn</foreignphrase>), a variant of which is spoken
- by the majority of Taiwan and hence called Taiwanese; and Hakka (<foreignphrase
- xml:lang="cmn-Hani">客家</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">kèjiā</foreignphrase>), spoken in a belt above the
- Cantonese area, as well as by a minority on Taiwan. Cantonese, Fukienese, and Hakka are also
- widely spoken throughout Southeast Asia.</para>
- <para>In addition to these Chinese languages, there are also non-Chinese languages spoken by
- minority ethnic groups. Some of these, such as Tibetan, are distantly related to the Chinese
- languages. Others, such as Mongolian, are entirely unrelated. </para>
- <formalpara>
- <title>Some characteristics of Chinese</title>
- <para>Some Characteristics of Chinese Perhaps the most striking feature of Chinese to us is
- the use of 'tones' to distinguish the meaning of individual syllables. All languages,
- and Chinese is no exception, make use of sentence intonation to indicate how whole
- sentences are to be understood. In English, for example, the rising pattern in 'He's
- gone?' tells us that it is meant as a question. The Chinese tones, however, are quite a
- different matter. They belong to individual syllables, not to the sentence as a whole.
- Each syllable of Standard Chinese has one of four distinctive tones as an inherent part.
- The tone does just as much to distinguish the syllable from other possible syllables as
- do the consonants and vowels. For example, the only difference between the verb 'to
- buy,' <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">买</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǎi</foreignphrase>, and the verb 'to sell,'
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">卖</foreignphrase>
- <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mài</foreignphrase>, is the difference between
- the Low Tone and the Falling Tone, And yet these words are just as distinguishable as
- our words 'buy' and 'guy,' or 'buy' and 'boy.' Apart from the tones, the sound system of
- Standard Chinese is no more different from English than French is.</para>
- </formalpara>
- <para>The grammar of Standard Chinese is relatively simple. For one thing, it has no
- conjugations such as are found in many European languages. Chinese verbs have fewer forms
- than English verbs, and nowhere near as many irregularities. Chinese grammar relies heavily
- on word order, and often the word order is the same as in English: 'John loves Mary' versus
- 'Mary loves John.' For these reasons Chinese is not as difficult for Americans to learn to
- speak as one might think. </para>
- <para> It is often said that Chinese is a monosyllabic language. This notion contains a good
- deal of truth. It has been found that, on the average, every other word in ordinary
- conversation is a single-syllable word. Moreover, although most words in the dictionary have
- two syllables, and some have more, these words can almost always be broken down into
- single-syllable units of meaning, many of which can stand alone as words themselves</para>
- <formalpara>
- <title>Written Chinese</title>
- <para>Written Chinese Most languages with which we are familiar are written with an
- alphabet. The letters may be different from ours, as in the Greek alphabet, but the
- principle is the same: One letter for each consonant or vowel sound, more or less.
- Chinese, however, is written with 'characters' which stand for whole syllables. In fact,
- for whole syllables with particular meanings. There are only about thirteen hundred
- phonetically distinct syllables in everyday use, essentially one for each
- single-syllable unit of meaning. Chinese characters are often referred to as
- 'ideographs,' which suggests that they stand directly for ideas. But this is misleading;
- it is better to think of them as standing for the meaningful syllables of the spoken
- language.</para>
- </formalpara>
- <para>Minimal literacy in Chinese calls for knowing about a thousand characters. These thousand
- characters, in combination, give a reading vocabulary of several thousand words. Full
- literacy calls for knowing some three thousand characters. In order to reduce the amount of
- time needed to learn characters, there has been a vast extension in the People's Republic of
- China of the principle of character simplification, which has reduced the average number of
- strokes per character by half. </para>
- <para>One reason often given for the retention of characters is that they can be read, with the
- local pronunciation, by speakers of all the Chinese languages. Probably a stronger reason
- for their retention is that the characters help keep alive distinctions of meaning between
- words, which are fading in the spoken language. Against this, however, is the consideration
- that a Cantonese could learn to speak Standard Chinese, and read it alphabetically, at least
- as easily as he can learn several thousand characters. </para>
- <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">pīnyīn</foreignphrase> is used throughout this
- course to provide a simple written representation of pronunciation.</para>
- </chapter>
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