Fixed OCR errors

Changed straight quotes into curved quotes in text

FSI-Chinese.xml

@@ -23,9 +23,9 @@
             considered as controversial from some points of view, are sometimes included in the
             language instruction for DLIFLC students since military personnel may find themselves in
             positions where a clear understanding of conversations or written materials of this
-            nature will be essential to their mission. The presence of controversial statements —
-            whether real or apparent — in DLIFLC materials should not be construed as representing
-            the opinions of the writers, the DLIFLC, or the Department of Defense. </para>
+            nature will be essential to their mission. The presence of controversial 
+            statements—whether real or apparent—in DLIFLC materials should not be construed as
+            representing the opinions of the writers, the DLIFLC, or the Department of Defense. </para>
         <para>Actual brand names and businesses are sometimes cited in DLIFLC instructional
             materials to provide instruction in pronunciations and meanings. The selection of such
             proprietary terms and names is based solely on their value for instruction in the
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@
             institutions. </para>
         <para>A Project Board was established consisting of representatives of the Central
             Intelligence Agency Language Learning Center, the Defense Language Institute, the State
-            Department's Foreign Service Institute, the Cryptologic School of the National Security
+            Department’s Foreign Service Institute, the Cryptologic School of the National Security
             Agency, and the U.S. Office of Education, later joined by the Canadian Forces Foreign
             Language School. The representatives have included Arthur T. McNeill, John Hopkins, and
             John Boag (CIA); Colonel John F. Elder III, Joseph C. Hutchinson, Ivy Gibian, and Major
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@
             and Roberta S. Barry, who worked in close cooperation with the planning council and with
             the Chinese staff of the Foreign Service Institute. Mr. Harvey developed the
             instructional formats of the comprehension and production self-study materials, and also
-            designed the communications classroom activities and wrote the teacher's guides. Lucille
+            designed the communications classroom activities and wrote the teacher’s guides. Lucille
             A. Barale and Roberta S. Barry wrote the tape scripts and the student text. By 1978
             Thomas E. Madden and Susan C. Pola had joined the staff. Led by Ms. Barale, they have
             worked as a team to produce the materials subsequent to Module 6.</para>
@@ -138,16 +138,16 @@
                 and of text and tape. Here is what you should expect: </para>
             <itemizedlist>
                 <listitem>
-                    <para>The focus is on communicating in Chinese in practical situations — the
+                    <para>The focus is on communicating in Chinese in practical situations—the
                         obvious ones you will encounter upon arriving in China. You will be
                         communicating in Chinese most of the time you are in class. You will not
-                        always "be talking about real situations, " but you will almost always be
+                        always be talking about real situations, but you will almost always be
                         purposefully exchanging information in Chinese.</para>
                 </listitem>
                 <listitem>
                     <para>This focus on communicating means that the teacher is first of all your
                         conversational partner. Anything that forces him<footnote>
-                            <para>As used in this course, the words "he," "him," and "Ms" are
+                            <para>As used in this course, the words “he,” “him,” and “Ms” are
                                 intended to include both masculine and feminine genders.
                                 (Translations of foreign language material not included.)</para>
                         </footnote> back into the traditional roles of lecturer and drill-master
@@ -172,12 +172,12 @@
             <para>
                 <emphasis role="bold">How the Course Is Organized</emphasis>
             </para>
-            <para>The subtitle of this course, "A Modular Approach," refers to overall organization
+            <para>The subtitle of this course, “A Modular Approach,” refers to overall organization
                 of the materials into MODULES which focus on particular situations or language
                 topics and which allow a certain amount of choice as to what is taught and in what
                 order. To highlight equally significant features of the course, the subtitle could
-                just as well have been "A Situational Approach," "A Taped-Input Approach," or "A
-                Communicative Approach."</para>
+                just as well have been “A Situational Approach,” “A Taped-Input Approach,” or “A
+                Communicative Approach.”</para>
             <para>Ten situational modules form the core of the course: <informaltable frame="none"
                     rowsep="0" colsep="0">
                     <tgroup cols="2">
@@ -227,7 +227,7 @@
                             <row>
                                 <entry>LIFE IH CHINA (LIC)</entry>
                                 <entry>Talking about daily life in <foreignphrase
-                                        xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Bĕijīng</foreignphrase> street
+                                        xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Běijīng</foreignphrase> street
                                     committees, leisure activities, traffic and transportation,
                                     buying and rationing, housing. </entry>
                             </row>
@@ -303,10 +303,10 @@
                         <para>CUSTOMS SURROUNDING MARRIAGE, BIRTH, MD DEATH (MBD)</para>
                     </listitem>
                     <listitem>
-                        <para>NEW YEAR'S CELEBRATION (NYH)</para>
+                        <para>NEW YEAR’S CELEBRATION (NYR)</para>
                     </listitem>
                     <listitem>
-                        <para>INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS (l&amp;0) </para>
+                        <para>INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS (I&amp;O) </para>
                     </listitem>
                 </itemizedlist>
             </para>
@@ -357,7 +357,7 @@
                 tapes: </para>
             <orderedlist>
                 <listitem>
-                    <para><emphasis role="bold">Comprehension Tape 1 (C-l)</emphasis>: This tape
+                    <para><emphasis role="bold">Comprehension Tape 1 (C-1)</emphasis>: This tape
                         introduces all the new words and structures in the unit and lets you hear
                         them in the context of short conversational exchanges. It then works them
                         into other short conversations and longer passages for listening practice,
@@ -365,29 +365,29 @@
                         the tape is to understand all the Target List sentences for the unit.</para>
                 </listitem>
                 <listitem>
-                    <para><emphasis role="bold">Production Tape 1 (P-l)</emphasis>: This tape gives
+                    <para><emphasis role="bold">Production Tape 1 (P-1)</emphasis>: This tape gives
                         you practice in pronouncing the new words and in saying the sentences you
-                        learned to understand on the C-l tape. Your goal when using the P-l tape is
+                        learned to understand on the C-1 tape. Your goal when using the P-1 tape is
                         to be able to produce any of the Target List sentences in Chinese when given
                         the English equivalent. </para>
-                    <para>The C-l and P-l tapes, not accompanied by workbooks, are "portable," in
+                    <para>The C-1 and P-1 tapes, not accompanied by workbooks, are “portable,” in
                         the sense that they do not tie you down to your desk. However, there are
                         some written materials for each unit which you will need to work into your
                         study routine. A text <emphasis role="italic">Reference List</emphasis> at
-                        the beginning of each unit contains the sentences from the C-l and P-l
+                        the beginning of each unit contains the sentences from the C-1 and P-1
                         tapes. It includes both the Chinese sentences and their English equivalents.
                         The text <emphasis role="italic">Reference Notes</emphasis> restate and
-                        expand the comments made on the C-l and P-l tapes concerning grammar,
-                        vocabulary, pronunciation, and culture. After you have worked with the C-l
-                        and P-l tapes, you go on to two class activities:</para>
+                        expand the comments made on the C-1 and P-1 tapes concerning grammar,
+                        vocabulary, pronunciation, and culture. After you have worked with the C-1
+                        and P-1 tapes, you go on to two class activities:</para>
                 </listitem>
                 <listitem>
                     <para><emphasis role="bold">Target List Review</emphasis>: In this first class
-                        activity of the unit, you find out how well you learned the C-l and P-l
+                        activity of the unit, you find out how well you learned the C-1 and P-1
                         sentences. The teacher checks your understanding and production of the
                         Target List sentences. He also presents any additional required vocabulary
-                        items, found at the end of the Target List, which were not on the C-l and
-                        P-l tapes.</para>
+                        items, found at the end of the Target List, which were not on the C-1 and
+                        P-1 tapes.</para>
                 </listitem>
                 <listitem>
                     <para><emphasis role="bold">Structural Buildup</emphasis>: During this class
@@ -455,7 +455,7 @@
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                         <row>
-                            <entry>C-l, P-l Tapes</entry>
+                            <entry>C-1, P-1 Tapes</entry>
                             <entry>
                                 <para>Target List </para>
                                 <para>Reference List</para>
@@ -469,7 +469,7 @@
                             <entry>Structural Buildup</entry>
                         </row>
                         <row>
-                            <entry>D-l Tapes</entry>
+                            <entry>D-1 Tapes</entry>
                             <entry>Drills</entry>
                             <entry>Drills </entry>
                         </row>
@@ -491,7 +491,7 @@
             </informaltable>
 
             <figure>
-                <title><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Wen wǔ</foreignphrase> Temple in
+                <title><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Wén wǔ</foreignphrase> Temple in
                     central Taiwan (courtesy of Thomas Madden)</title>
                 <para>By Photo by CEphoto, Uwe Aranas or alternatively © CEphoto, Uwe Aranas, CC
                     BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=51438668<inlinemediaobject>
@@ -517,27 +517,27 @@
         <section>
             <title>Background Notes: About Chinese</title>
             <para><emphasis role="bold">The Chinese Languages</emphasis></para>
-            <para> We find it perfectly natural to talk about a language called "Chinese." We say,
+            <para> We find it perfectly natural to talk about a language called “Chinese.” We say,
                 for example, that the people of China speak different dialects of Chinese, and that
                 Confucius wrote in an ancient form of Chinese. On the other hand, we would never
                 think of saying that the people of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal speak dialects
                 of one language, and that Julius Caesar wrote in an ancient form of that language.
                 But the facts are almost exactly parallel.</para>
             <para>Therefore, in terms of what we think of as a language when closer to home,
-                "Chinese" is not one language, but a family of languages. The language of Confucius
+                “Chinese” is not one language, but a family of languages. The language of Confucius
                 is partway up the trunk of the family tree. Like Latin, it lived on as a literary
                 language long after its death as a spoken language in popular use. The seven modern
-                languages of China, traditionally known as the "dialects," are the branches of the
+                languages of China, traditionally known as the “dialects,” are the branches of the
                 tree. They share as strong a family resemblance as do Italian, French, Spanish, and
                 Portuguese, and are about as different from one another. </para>
             <para>The predominant language of China is now known as <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Pŭtōnghuà</foreignphrase>, or "Standard Chinese"
-                (literally "the common speech"). The more traditional term, still used in Taiwan, is
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guóyŭ</foreignphrase>, or "Mandarin"
-                (literally "the national language"). Standard Chinese is spoken natively by almost
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Pǔtōnghuà</foreignphrase>, or “Standard Chinese”
+                (literally “the common speech”). The more traditional term, still used in Taiwan, is
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guóyǔ</foreignphrase>, or “Mandarin”
+                (literally “the national language”). Standard Chinese is spoken natively by almost
                 two-thirds of the population of China and throughout the greater part of the
                 country. </para>
-            <para>The term "Standard Chinese" is often used more narrowly to refer to the true
+            <para>The term “Standard Chinese” is often used more narrowly to refer to the true
                 national language which is emerging. This language, which is already the language of
                 all national broadcasting, is based primarily on the Peking dialect, but takes in
                 elements from other dialects of Standard Chinese and even from other Chinese
@@ -551,13 +551,13 @@
             <para>The remaining six Chinese languages, spoken by approximately a quarter of the
                 population of China, are tightly grouped in the southeast, below the Yangtze River.
                 The six are: the Wu group (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
-                    >Wú</foreignphrase>), which includes the "Shanghai dialect"; Hunanese
-                    (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiāng</foreignphrase>); the "Kiangsi
-                dialect" (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Gàn</foreignphrase>); Cantonese
+                    >Wú</foreignphrase>), which includes the “Shanghai dialect”; Hunanese
+                    (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiāng</foreignphrase>); the “Kiangsi
+                dialect” (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Gàn</foreignphrase>); Cantonese
                     (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Yuè</foreignphrase>), the language of
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guăngdōng</foreignphrase>, widely
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Guǎngdōng</foreignphrase>, widely
                 spoken in Chinese communities in the United States; Fukienese (<foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mĭn</foreignphrase>), a variant of which is spoken by
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǐn</foreignphrase>), a variant of which is spoken by
                 a majority on Taiwan and hence called Taiwanese; and Hakka (<foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Kèjiā</foreignphrase>), spoken in a belt above the
                 Cantonese area, as well as by a minority on Taiwan. Cantonese, Fukienese, and Hakka
@@ -568,20 +568,20 @@
             <para><emphasis role="bold">Some Characteristics of Chinese</emphasis>
             </para>
             <para>To us, perhaps the roost striking feature of spoken Chinese is the use of
-                variation in tone ("tones" to distinguish the different meanings of syllables which
+                variation in tone (“tones” to distinguish the different meanings of syllables which
                 would otherwise sound alike. All languages, and Chinese is no exception, make use of
                 sentence intonation to indicate how whole sentences are to be understood. In
-                English, for example, the rising pattern in "He’s gone?" tells us that the sentence
+                English, for example, the rising pattern in “He’s gone?” tells us that the sentence
                 is meant as a question. The Chinese tones, however, are quite a different matter.
                 They belong to individual syllables, not to the sentence as a whole. An inherent
                 part of each Standard Chinese syllable is one of four distinctive tones. The tone
                 does just as much to distinguish the syllable as do the consonants and vowels. For
-                example, the only difference between the verb "to buy," <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǎi</foreignphrase> and the verb "to sell,"
+                example, the only difference between the verb “to buy,” <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mǎi</foreignphrase> and the verb “to sell,”
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">mài</foreignphrase>, is the Low tone
                     (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">ˇ̆</foreignphrase>) and the Falling tone
                     (<foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">`</foreignphrase>). And yet these words are
-                Just as distinguishable as our words "buy" and "guy," or "buy" and "boy." Apart from
+                Just as distinguishable as our words “buy” and “guy,” or “buy” and “boy.” Apart from
                 the tones, the sound system of Standard Chinese is no more different from English
                 than French is. </para>
             <para>Word formation in Standard Chinese is relatively simple. For one thing, there are
@@ -602,39 +602,39 @@
             <para>Most languages with which we are familiar are written with an alphabet. The
                 letters may be different from ours, as in the Greek alphabet, but the principle is
                 the same: one letter for each consonant or vowel sound, more or less. Chinese,
-                however, is written with "characters" which stand for whole syllables — in fact, for
+                however, is written with “characters” which stand for whole syllables—in fact, for
                 whole syllables with particular meanings. Although there are only about thirteen
                 hundred phonetically distinct syllables in standard Chinese, there are several
                 thousand Chinese characters in everyday use, essentially one for each
                 single-syllable unit of meaning. This means that many words have the same
                 pronunciation but are written with different characters, as <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">tiān</foreignphrase>, "sky," <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">tiān</foreignphrase>, “sky,” <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Hani">天</foreignphrase>, and <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">tiān</foreignphrase>, "to add," "to increase,"
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">tiān</foreignphrase>, “to add,” “to increase,”
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani">添</foreignphrase>. Chinese characters are
-                often referred to as "ideographs" which suggests that they stand directly for ideas.
+                often referred to as “ideographs” which suggests that they stand directly for ideas.
                 But this is misleading. It is better to think of them as standing for the meaningful
                 syllables of the spoken language. </para>
             <para>Minimal literacy in Chinese calls for knowing about a thousand characters. These
                 thousand characters, in combination, give a reading vocabulary of several thousand
                 words. Full literacy calls for knowing some three thousand characters. In order to
                 reduce the amount of time needed to learn characters, there has been a vast
-                extension in the People's Republic of China (PRC) of the principle of character
+                extension in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) of the principle of character
                 simplification, which has reduced the average number of strokes per character by
                 half. </para>
             <para>During the past century, various systems have been proposed for representing the
                 sounds of Chinese with letters of the Roman alphabet. One of these romanizations,
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Hànyŭ</foreignphrase>
-                <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Pīnyīn</foreignphrase> (literally "Chinese
-                Language Spelling," generally called "Pinyin" in English), has been adopted
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Hànyǔ</foreignphrase>
+                <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Pīnyīn</foreignphrase> (literally “Chinese
+                Language Spelling,” generally called “Pinyin” in English), has been adopted
                 officially in the PRC, with the short-term goal of teaching all students the
                 Standard Chinese pronunciation of characters. A long-range goal is the use of Pinyin
                 for written communication throughout the country. This is not possible, of course,
                 until speakers across the nation have uniform pronunciations of Standard Chinese.
                 For the time being, characters, which represent meaning, not pronunciation, are
                 still the most widely accepted way of communicating in writing. </para>
-            <para>Pinyin uses all of the letters in our alphabet except "<emphasis role="bold"
-                    >v</emphasis>," and adds the letter "<emphasis role="bold">ü</emphasis>." The
+            <para>Pinyin uses all of the letters in our alphabet except “<emphasis role="bold"
+                    >v</emphasis>,” and adds the letter “<emphasis role="bold">ü</emphasis>.” The
                 spellings of some of the consonant sounds are rather arbitrary from our point of
                 view, but for every consonant sound there is only one letter or one combination of
                 letters, and vice versa. You will find that each vowel letter can stand for
@@ -671,8 +671,8 @@
                 the varying thickness of the stroke how the brush met the paper, how it swooped, and
                 how it lifted; these effects are largely lost in characters written with a
                 ball-point pen. </para>
-            <para>The sequence of strokes is of particular importance. Let's take the character for
-                "mouth," pronounced <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">kǒu</foreignphrase>.
+            <para>The sequence of strokes is of particular importance. Let’s take the character for
+                “mouth,” pronounced <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">kǒu</foreignphrase>.
                 Here it is as normally written, with the order and directions of the strokes
                 indicated.</para>
             <figure>
@@ -685,7 +685,7 @@
                     </imageobject>
                 </mediaobject>
             </figure>
-            <para>If the character is written rapidly, in "running-style writing," one stroke glides
+            <para>If the character is written rapidly, in “running-style writing,” one stroke glides
                 into the next, like this. </para>
             <figure>
                 <title>Running style writing </title>
@@ -700,16 +700,16 @@
             <para>If the strokes were written in any but the proper order, quite different
                 distortions would take place as each stroke reflected the last and anticipated the
                 next, and the character would be illegible.</para>
-            <para>The earliest surviving Chinese characters, inscribed on the Shang Dynasty "oracle
-                bones" of about 1500 B.C. , already included characters that vent beyond simple
+            <para>The earliest surviving Chinese characters, inscribed on the Shang Dynasty “oracle
+                bones” of about 1500 B.C. , already included characters that vent beyond simple
                 pictorial representation. There are some characters in use today which are
-                pictorial, like the character for "mouth." There are also some which are directly
-                symbolic, like our Roman numerals I, II, and III. (The characters for these numbers
-                — the first numbers you learn in this course — are like the Roman numerals turned on
+                pictorial, like the character for “mouth.” There are also some which are directly
+                symbolic, like our Roman numerals I, II, and III. (The characters for these 
+                numbers—the first numbers you learn in this course—are like the Roman numerals turned on
                 their sides.) There are some which are indirectly symbolic, like our Arabic numerals
-                1,2, and 3. But the most common type of character is complex, consisting of two
-                parts: a "phonetic," which suggests the pronunciation, and a "radical," which
-                broadly characterizes the meaning. Let's take the following character as an example. </para>
+                1, 2, and 3. But the most common type of character is complex, consisting of two
+                parts: a “phonetic,” which suggests the pronunciation, and a “radical,” which
+                broadly characterizes the meaning. Let’s take the following character as an example. </para>
             <figure>
                 <title>Running style writing </title>
                 <mediaobject>
@@ -720,24 +720,25 @@
                     </imageobject>
                 </mediaobject>
             </figure>
-            <para>This character means "ocean" and is pronounced <foreignphrase
+            <para>This character means “ocean” and is pronounced <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase>. The left side of the character,
-                the three short strokes, is an abbreviation of a character which means "water" and
-                is pronounced <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">shuĭ</foreignphrase>. This
-                is the "radical." It has been borrowed only for its meaning, "water." The right side
-                of the character above is a character which means "sheep" and is pronounced yang.
-                This is the "phonetic." It has been borrowed only for its sound value,
+                the three short strokes, is an abbreviation of a character which means “water” and
+                is pronounced <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">shuǐ</foreignphrase>. This
+                is the “radical.” It has been borrowed only for its meaning, "water.” The right side
+                of the character above is a character which means "sheep” and is pronounced
+                xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase>.
+                This is the “phonetic.” It has been borrowed only for its sound value,
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase>. A speaker of
                 Chinese encountering the above character for the first time could probably figure
                 out that the only Chinese word that sounds like <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase> and means something like
-                "water," is the word <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase>
-                meaning "ocean," We, as speakers of English, might not be able to figure it out.
+                “water,” is the word <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">yáng</foreignphrase>
+                meaning “ocean,” We, as speakers of English, might not be able to figure it out.
                 Moreover, phonetics and radicals seldom work as neatly as in this example. But we
                 can still learn to make good use of these hints at sound and sense. </para>
             <para>Many dictionaries classify characters in terms of the radicals. According to one
                 of the two dictionary systems used, there are 176 radicals; in the other system,
-                there are 2l4. There are over a thousand phonetics.</para>
+                there are 214. There are over a thousand phonetics.</para>
             <para>Chinese has traditionally been written vertically, from top to bottom of the page,
                 starting on the right-hand side, with the pages bound so that the first page is
                 where we would expect the last page to be. Nowadays, however, many Chinese
@@ -760,104 +761,104 @@
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Jiǎng Jièshí</foreignphrase> (Chiang
                 Kai-shek)</para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sòng Qìnglíng</foreignphrase> (Soong
-                Ch'ing-ling —- Mme Sun Yat-sen)</para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sòng Mĕilíng</foreignphrase> (Soong
+                Chʽing-ling—Mme Sun Yat-sen)</para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sòng Měilíng</foreignphrase> (Soong
                 Mei-ling—Mme Chiang Kai-shek)</para>
             <para>It is not uncommon, however, for the given name to consist of a single
                 syllable:</para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Zhŭ Dé </foreignphrase> (Chu De) :
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Zhū Dé </foreignphrase> (Chu De) :
                 Marshal Zhu De, the communist general <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Hani"
                     >朱德</foreignphrase></para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Lín Biāo</foreignphrase> (Lin Piao) </para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Hú Shì</foreignphrase> (Hu Shih) </para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Jiāng Qīng</foreignphrase> (Chiang
-                Ch'ing—Mme Mao Tse-tung) </para>
+                Chʽing—Mme Mao Tse-tung) </para>
             <para>There are a few two-syllable surnames. </para>
             <para>These are usually followed by single-syllable given names: </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sīmă Guāng</foreignphrase> (Ssu-ma
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sīmǎ Guāng</foreignphrase> (Ssu-ma
                 Kuang) </para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Ōuyáng Xiū</foreignphrase> (Ou-yang
                 Hsiu) </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Zhūgĕ Liàng</foreignphrase> (Chu-ke
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Zhūgě Liàng</foreignphrase> (Chu-ke
                 Liang) </para>
             <para>But two-syllable surnames may also be followed by two-syllable given names:</para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sīmă Xiāngrú</foreignphrase> (Ssu-ma
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Sīmǎ Xiāngrú</foreignphrase> (Ssu-ma
                 Hsiang-ju) </para>
             <para>An exhaustive list of Chinese surnames includes several hundred written with a
                 single character and several dozen written with two characters. Some single-syllable
                 surnames sound exactly alike although written with different characters, and to
                 distinguish them, the Chinese nay occasionally have to describe the character or
-                "write" it with a finger on the palm of a hand. But the surnames that you are likely
+                “write” it with a finger on the palm of a hand. But the surnames that you are likely
                 to encounter are fever than a hundred, and a handful of these are so common that
                 they account for a good majority of China’s population. </para>
             <para>Given names, as opposed to surnames, are not restricted to a limited list of
-                characters, Men's names are often but not always distinguishable from women's; the
+                characters, Men’s names are often but not always distinguishable from women’s; the
                 difference, however, usually lies in the meaning of the characters and so is not
                 readily apparent to the beginning student with a limited knowledge of
                 characters.</para>
-            <para>Outside the People's Republic the traditional system of titles is still in use.
-                These titles closely parallel our own "Mr.," "Mrs.," and "Miss." Notice, however,
-                that all Chinese titles follow the name — either the full name or the surname alone
-                — rather than preceding it.</para>
-            <para>The title "Mr." is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
+            <para>Outside the People’s Republic the traditional system of titles is still in use.
+                These titles closely parallel our own “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” and “Miss.” Notice, however,
+                that all Chinese titles follow the name—either the full name or the surname
+                alone—rather than preceding it.</para>
+            <para>The title “Mr.” is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
                     >Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>. </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para>The title "Mrs." is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
-                    >Tàitai</foreignphrase>. It follows the husband's full name or surname alone. </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Tàitai</foreignphrase>
+            <para>The title “Mrs.” is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
+                    >Tàitai</foreignphrase>. It follows the husband’s full name or surname alone. </para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Tàitai</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ Tàitai</foreignphrase>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ Tàitai</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para>The title "Miss" is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
-                    >Xiăojiĕ</foreignphrase>. The Ma family's grown daughter, <foreignphrase
+            <para>The title “Miss” is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin"
+                    >Xiǎojiě</foreignphrase>. The Ma family’s grown daughter, <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Défēn</foreignphrase>, would be</para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Xiăojiĕ</foreignphrase></para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Défēn Xiăojiĕ</foreignphrase>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Xiǎojiě</foreignphrase></para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Défēn Xiǎojiě</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para>Even traditionally, outside the People's Republic, a married woman does not take
-                her husband's name in the same sense as in our culture. If Miss Fang <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Băolán</foreignphrase> marries Mr. <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Ma Mínglĭ</foreignphrase>, she becomes Mrs,
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ</foreignphrase>, but at the
+            <para>Even traditionally, outside the People’s Republic, a married woman does not take
+                her husband’s name in the same sense as in our culture. If Miss Fang <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Bǎolán</foreignphrase> marries Mr. <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Ma Mínglǐ</foreignphrase>, she becomes Mrs,
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ</foreignphrase>, but at the
                 same time she remains <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng
-                    Băolán</foreignphrase>, She does not become <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Băolán</foreignphrase>; there is no equivalent of
-                "Mrs. Mary Smith." She may, however, add her husband's surname to her own full name
-                and refer to herself as <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Fāng
-                    Băolán</foreignphrase>. At work she is quite likely to continue as Miss
+                    Bǎolán</foreignphrase>, She does not become <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Bǎolán</foreignphrase>; there is no equivalent of
+                “Mrs. Mary Smith.” She may, however, add her husband’s surname to her own full name
+                and refer to herself as <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Fāng
+                    Bǎolán</foreignphrase>. At work she is quite likely to continue as Miss
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng</foreignphrase>. </para>
             <para>These customs regarding names are still observed by many Chinese today in various
                 parts of the world. The titles carry certain connotations, however, when used in the
                 PRC today: <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Tàitai</foreignphrase> should
                 not be used because it designates that woman as a member of the leisure class.
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiăojiĕ</foreignphrase> should not be
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiǎojiě</foreignphrase> should not be
                 used because it carries the connotation of being from a rich family. </para>
-            <para>In the People's Republic, the title "Comrade," <foreignphrase
+            <para>In the People’s Republic, the title “Comrade,” <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Tóngzhì</foreignphrase> is used in place of the
                 titles <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiānsheng</foreignphrase>,
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Tàitai</foreignphrase>, and
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiăojiĕ</foreignphrase>.
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ</foreignphrase> would
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Xiǎojiě</foreignphrase>.
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ</foreignphrase> would
                 be:</para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
-            <para>The title "Comrade" is applied to all, regardless of sex or marital status. A
-                married woman does not take her husband's name in any sense. <foreignphrase
-                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ</foreignphrase>' s wife would be: </para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
+            <para>The title “Comrade” is applied to all, regardless of sex or marital status. A
+                married woman does not take her husband’s name in any sense. <foreignphrase
+                    xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ</foreignphrase>’s wife would be: </para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Tóngzhì</foreignphrase>
             </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Băolán
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Bǎolán
                 Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
-            <para>Children may be given either the mother's or the father's surname at birth. In
-                some families one child has the father's surname, and another child has the mother's
-                surname. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Mínglĭ</foreignphrase>'s and
-                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Băolán</foreignphrase>'s grown
+            <para>Children may be given either the mother’s or the father’s surname at birth. In
+                some families one child has the father’s surname, and another child has the mother’s
+                surname. <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Mínglǐ</foreignphrase>’s and
+                    <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Bǎolán</foreignphrase>’s grown
                 daughter could be </para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Tŏngzhì </foreignphrase></para>
-            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mă Dĕfēn Tóngzhì</foreignphrase>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Tŏngzhì </foreignphrase></para>
+            <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Mǎ Děfēn Tóngzhì</foreignphrase>
             </para>
             <para>Their grown son could be </para>
             <para><foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Fāng Tóngzhì</foreignphrase></para>
@@ -867,20 +868,20 @@
                 respect in addition to the common titles we have discussed here. Several of these
                 will be introduced later in the course. </para>
             <para>The question of adapting foreign names to Chinese calls for special consideration.
-                In the People's Republic the policy is to assign Chinese phonetic equivalents to
+                In the People’s Republic the policy is to assign Chinese phonetic equivalents to
                 foreign names. These approximations are often not as close phonetically as they
                 might be, since the choice of appropriate written characters may bring in
                 non-phonetic considerations. (An attempt is usually made when transliterating to use
                 characters with attractive meanings.) For the most part, the resulting names do not
-                at all resemble Chinese names. For example, the official version of "David Anderson"
-                is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Dàiwĕi Āndésēn</foreignphrase>. </para>
+                at all resemble Chinese names. For example, the official version of “David Anderson”
+                is <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Dàiwěi Āndésēn</foreignphrase>. </para>
             <para>An older approach, still in use outside the PRC, is to construct a valid Chinese
-                name that suggests the foreign name phonetically. For example, "David Anderson"
+                name that suggests the foreign name phonetically. For example, “David Anderson”
                 might be <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">An Dàwèi</foreignphrase>. </para>
             <para>Sometimes, when a foreign surname has the same meaning as a Chinese surname,
                 semantic suggestiveness is chosen over phonetic suggestiveness. For example,
                     <foreignphrase xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Wáng</foreignphrase>, a common Chinese
-                surname, means "king," so "Daniel King" might be rendered <foreignphrase
+                surname, means “king,” so “Daniel King” might be rendered <foreignphrase
                     xml:lang="cmn-Latn-pinyin">Wáng Dànián</foreignphrase>. </para>
             <para>Students in this course will be given both the official PRC phonetic equivalents
                 of their names and Chinese-style names.<emphasis/></para>